Mesopotamia: Site of Several Ancient River Civilizations, c. 3500-1200 BC/BCE
On a historical map, locate the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and identify Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria as successive civilizations and empires in this region, and explain why the region is sometimes called “the Fertile Crescent.” On a modern map of western Asia, identify the modern countries in the region (Iraq, Iran, and Turkey).
Focus Questions:
The Virtual Museum of Iraq: A Journey into 6000 Years of HistoryThis site has maps, timelines, historical and geographical background and other information from prehistoric to Islamic times.
Locating the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers / Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria on Historic Maps
The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers make up the river system which sustained some of the earliest human civilizations. They were the cornerstone of countless civilizations, historically this includes Sumer (c.5300-1900BCE), Babylon (c.2500-539BCE), andAssyria (c.2200-605BCE). On the maps located below of these locations is demarcated.
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and Sumer (c.600-300BCE)
Babylonia, Assyria (Assur), and the other civilizations of the region.
For an interactive overview, go toMesopotamia from the British Museum.
For a timeline, go to Mesopotamia, 1000 B.C.--1 A.D. from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Go to the Atlas of World History for a geographic overviewof Sumer.
This is a great handout briefly summarizing thegeographic history of Mesopotamia, with a great map and questions for students to answer.
Check out this interactive model of a house excavated from Jarmo in Mesopotamia. It's a great example of how people began to settle in the Fertile Crescent.
"Fertile Crescent"
This region, encompassing Mesopotamia, Sumer, Assyria, and Babylon, nestled in between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, is called Fertile Crescent because, despite being located in an arid region of the world, this arc or crescent-shaped piece of land is fertile.
What modern day countries are Sumeria, Babylon, Assyria and the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers located in?
Sumeria, Babylon and Assyria, the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers are located (mostly) in what is now Iraq. Additionally, the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers stretched northward into Turkey (and Syria) and Assyria reached into what is now Iran as well. Compare the modern day map below with the maps above to get an accurate picture of where these places are located.
Pictured are Turkey (upper left), Iraq (center), and Iran (center right).
How did Sumeria, Babylon, and Assyria earn the status of successive civilizations and empires?
Check out this Fertile Crescent Rap, which includes lyrics with historical explanations to learn more about the civilizations of the Fertile Crescent and their accomplishments. There is also an accompanying lesson plan.
Factors in Creating the Assyrian Empire
- Where are the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria on historical successive maps?
- Why has this region been sometimes referred to as "the Fertile Crescent?”
- What modern day countries are in this region and where are they on a map?
- What is significant about these civilizations that has earned them the status of successive civilizations and empires?
The Virtual Museum of Iraq: A Journey into 6000 Years of HistoryThis site has maps, timelines, historical and geographical background and other information from prehistoric to Islamic times.
Locating the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers / Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria on Historic Maps
The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers make up the river system which sustained some of the earliest human civilizations. They were the cornerstone of countless civilizations, historically this includes Sumer (c.5300-1900BCE), Babylon (c.2500-539BCE), andAssyria (c.2200-605BCE). On the maps located below of these locations is demarcated.
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and Sumer (c.600-300BCE)
Babylonia, Assyria (Assur), and the other civilizations of the region.
For an interactive overview, go toMesopotamia from the British Museum.
For a timeline, go to Mesopotamia, 1000 B.C.--1 A.D. from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Go to the Atlas of World History for a geographic overviewof Sumer.
This is a great handout briefly summarizing thegeographic history of Mesopotamia, with a great map and questions for students to answer.
Check out this interactive model of a house excavated from Jarmo in Mesopotamia. It's a great example of how people began to settle in the Fertile Crescent.
"Fertile Crescent"
This region, encompassing Mesopotamia, Sumer, Assyria, and Babylon, nestled in between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, is called Fertile Crescent because, despite being located in an arid region of the world, this arc or crescent-shaped piece of land is fertile.
- Beginning with the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which flood once a year, and all the way to the coast of the Mediterranean as far as Egypt, this area has provided life for civilizations for longer than 5,000 years.
- Yearly flooding leaves behind a thick bed of mud called silt. In this rich new soil, farmers could consistently plant enough wheat and barley too allowing for villages and cities to grow.
What modern day countries are Sumeria, Babylon, Assyria and the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers located in?
Sumeria, Babylon and Assyria, the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers are located (mostly) in what is now Iraq. Additionally, the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers stretched northward into Turkey (and Syria) and Assyria reached into what is now Iran as well. Compare the modern day map below with the maps above to get an accurate picture of where these places are located.
Pictured are Turkey (upper left), Iraq (center), and Iran (center right).
How did Sumeria, Babylon, and Assyria earn the status of successive civilizations and empires?
- They overcame the geographic challenges they faced.
- Irrigation provided consistent water for crops in drought ridden areas.
- Walls, made of mud bricks, protected cities from invaders.
- Trading grain, cloth and tools with other civilizations allowed populations to grow dispite a lack of stone, wood, and metal.
- Advanced cities
- Each city was surrounded by fields of barley and wheat.
- Each city developed their own government with their own rulers.
- Each city and the surrounding land formed a city-state.
- Specialized workers
- Priests, kings, merchants, farmers, artisans, etc are all more readily prevalent in city-states as the focus on day-to-day life is already being met.
- Complex institutions
- Ruling class and government in regard to taxes.
- Record Keeping
- Advanced technology
- The invention of the wheel, sail, plow, numbering system, writing system and contributions to astronomy.
- Strong leadership
- Earliest governments were controlled by priests, while people believed the success of their crops depended upon the blessings of various gods.
- Ziggurat was a place of worship and a quasi-city hall.
- Priests demanded a portion of every farmer's income as tax to the city-state
- In times of war, priests would not rule and instead rule was passed onto a tough fighter who could command the city's soldiers. Eventually permanent control of the city-state was granted to the commanders. Rulers would pass their control onto their sons.
- Food surpluses and population growth
- With excess food population and trade expand.
- Increased contact with neighboring cultures.
- Laws
- Hammurabi's contribution of his code of laws dealing with everything that affected the community, business, family, and crime centralized punishment for misdeeds and solidified the power of the government. (See 7.11 for more on Hammurabi's Code)
Check out this Fertile Crescent Rap, which includes lyrics with historical explanations to learn more about the civilizations of the Fertile Crescent and their accomplishments. There is also an accompanying lesson plan.
Factors in Creating the Assyrian Empire
- Kings with absolute power were able to rally support and raise armies
- Strong organization from government, laws, and centralization of society.
- Efficient system of communication with network of posts to relay messages via horses
- Strong use of military leaders and fighters
- Use of terror: fire set to crops, destroyed dams, laid waste to land they were fighting (Spielvogel, 2005)
Identify polytheism (the belief that there are many gods) as the religious belief of the people in Mesopotamian civilizations.
Focus Question: How were religious beliefs constructed in the ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia?
Click here to hear "Polytheism/Monotheism: More Gods, More Diversity?" from a panel of researchers convened by the Chicago Humanities Festival.
1) The Sumerian civilization was polytheistic (believing in more than one god) and was consequently succeeded by the Babylonians and Assyrians, both of whom adopted the polytheistic beliefs. Many of the gods were similar among civilizations; however, stories and gods were added. For details, see below.
2) Examining religious practices in the ancient world is a foundation for the study of great monotheistic world religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, polytheism is the “doctrine or belief that there is more than one god; worship of several gods.” Most ancient civilizations believed in a group of gods and goddesses that were characters in myths that served to explain natural phenomena (like thunder, or death), and establish moral codes. Often, would be a dominant god or goddess within these groups. For example, the Ancient Greeks believed that Zeus was the head of the gods. In Norse mythology, Odin was the greatest god. For the Sumerians, An, the god of air and sky, was the preeminent god. (link 1)
Bull statuette, bronze inlaid with silver. Early Dynastic III, archaic Mesopotamia
The Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia from 2900-1800 B.C. in political entities called city-states. These city-states were clusters of cities independent from each other’s rule. The Sumerian city-states each had a patron, or protecting god or goddess (link 1).
This god or goddess was worshipped at the temple in the center of the city, which formed the focal point of local life in each city-state. One of the most important parts of these temples was the tall tower called a ziggurat, meaning “Holy Mountain”.
According to ancient legend, the Sumerians originally came from the mountains where they believed the gods resided. In order to stay close to these gods after migrating to the Fertile Crescent, these ziggurats were constructed so the priests could serve the needs of the gods (see link 2 for pictures). In addition, food and resources went to the gods first (really, to the priests at the temples) while the remainder was then given to the city-state residents. Because each city-state’s god guarded over it and its people, each city-state was sacred. In this sense, the Sumerians thought that the gods and goddesses owned these cities.
Sumerian gods and goddesses represented parts of the natural world and were anthropomorphic, which means they resembled humans (link 1,link 6). There were four principle gods in Ancient Sumer. These were: An, was god of the sky; Enki was god of the earth, as well as rivers and water; Enlil was god of the wind; Ninhursaga was goddess of soil, mountains, and plants. Other, lesser gods included: Utu, god of the sun; and Nannar god of the moon. The lesser gods were celestial bodies, considered to be An’s grandchildren and great-grandchildren. (link 6)
The Sumerians were followed in Mesopotamia by the Akkadians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians, all of whom followed similar gods and goddesses (link 3). One very prominent goddess for all of them was Ishtar, or Inanna. (link 4) She was a fertility goddess, like many female goddesses in the ancient world. In one myth, when Gilgamesh would not love Ishtar, she killed his friend Enkidu. In another story, created to explain the seasons, Ishtar kills her son Tammuz. When she does, the whole earth dies. Ishtar goes to her sister Allatu, goddess of the underworld, and begs her to let Tammuz come back. Like in the Greek myth about Persephone, Tammuz is only allowed to come back from the underworld for spring and summer—thus explaining how the earth “dies” every year in fall and winter.
The mythology of Mesopotamia was very complex and varied—it even included demons and monsters. For more information, and to play a game that helps Mesopotamian gods and goddesses get back home, go to this link (link 5).
This short video clip provided connections to Ancient Sumer and the importance of religion in their society.
Cited Links
[1] http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture2b.html
A summary of Mesopotamian history, including a section on city-states and their gods; and gods’ relationships to people.
[2] http://www.crystalinks.com/ziggurat.html
Provided pictures of ziggurats in Ancient Mesopotamia
[3] http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/religion/monotheism.htm
For a comparison of monotheism and polytheism, a time line of early cultures, and good books on the history of religion.
[4] http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/religion/ishtar.htm
Describes the goddess Ishtar
[5] http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/home_set.html
Pictures of the Gods, Goddesses, Demons and Monsters of Ancient Mesopotamia
[6] http://wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/SUMER.HTM
A good site that provided a brief overview of not only polytheism in Ancient Mesopotamia, but covered information of their monarchy, their writings, science and mathematics, and their laws.
Additional Links
[7) http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/women.html
The University of Chicago provided a short background of the role of women in Ancient Mesopotamia. Their likenesses were many times placed inside the temples within these city-states.
[8] http://mesopotamia.lib.uchicago.edu/lessons_PDF/religion_a.pdf
A clear pdf chart of the major gods of Ancient Mesopotamia. A solid printout to supplement any lesson of Ancient Mesopotamia and religion.
Click here to hear "Polytheism/Monotheism: More Gods, More Diversity?" from a panel of researchers convened by the Chicago Humanities Festival.
1) The Sumerian civilization was polytheistic (believing in more than one god) and was consequently succeeded by the Babylonians and Assyrians, both of whom adopted the polytheistic beliefs. Many of the gods were similar among civilizations; however, stories and gods were added. For details, see below.
2) Examining religious practices in the ancient world is a foundation for the study of great monotheistic world religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, polytheism is the “doctrine or belief that there is more than one god; worship of several gods.” Most ancient civilizations believed in a group of gods and goddesses that were characters in myths that served to explain natural phenomena (like thunder, or death), and establish moral codes. Often, would be a dominant god or goddess within these groups. For example, the Ancient Greeks believed that Zeus was the head of the gods. In Norse mythology, Odin was the greatest god. For the Sumerians, An, the god of air and sky, was the preeminent god. (link 1)
Bull statuette, bronze inlaid with silver. Early Dynastic III, archaic Mesopotamia
The Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia from 2900-1800 B.C. in political entities called city-states. These city-states were clusters of cities independent from each other’s rule. The Sumerian city-states each had a patron, or protecting god or goddess (link 1).
This god or goddess was worshipped at the temple in the center of the city, which formed the focal point of local life in each city-state. One of the most important parts of these temples was the tall tower called a ziggurat, meaning “Holy Mountain”.
According to ancient legend, the Sumerians originally came from the mountains where they believed the gods resided. In order to stay close to these gods after migrating to the Fertile Crescent, these ziggurats were constructed so the priests could serve the needs of the gods (see link 2 for pictures). In addition, food and resources went to the gods first (really, to the priests at the temples) while the remainder was then given to the city-state residents. Because each city-state’s god guarded over it and its people, each city-state was sacred. In this sense, the Sumerians thought that the gods and goddesses owned these cities.
Sumerian gods and goddesses represented parts of the natural world and were anthropomorphic, which means they resembled humans (link 1,link 6). There were four principle gods in Ancient Sumer. These were: An, was god of the sky; Enki was god of the earth, as well as rivers and water; Enlil was god of the wind; Ninhursaga was goddess of soil, mountains, and plants. Other, lesser gods included: Utu, god of the sun; and Nannar god of the moon. The lesser gods were celestial bodies, considered to be An’s grandchildren and great-grandchildren. (link 6)
The Sumerians were followed in Mesopotamia by the Akkadians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians, all of whom followed similar gods and goddesses (link 3). One very prominent goddess for all of them was Ishtar, or Inanna. (link 4) She was a fertility goddess, like many female goddesses in the ancient world. In one myth, when Gilgamesh would not love Ishtar, she killed his friend Enkidu. In another story, created to explain the seasons, Ishtar kills her son Tammuz. When she does, the whole earth dies. Ishtar goes to her sister Allatu, goddess of the underworld, and begs her to let Tammuz come back. Like in the Greek myth about Persephone, Tammuz is only allowed to come back from the underworld for spring and summer—thus explaining how the earth “dies” every year in fall and winter.
The mythology of Mesopotamia was very complex and varied—it even included demons and monsters. For more information, and to play a game that helps Mesopotamian gods and goddesses get back home, go to this link (link 5).
This short video clip provided connections to Ancient Sumer and the importance of religion in their society.
Cited Links
[1] http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture2b.html
A summary of Mesopotamian history, including a section on city-states and their gods; and gods’ relationships to people.
[2] http://www.crystalinks.com/ziggurat.html
Provided pictures of ziggurats in Ancient Mesopotamia
[3] http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/religion/monotheism.htm
For a comparison of monotheism and polytheism, a time line of early cultures, and good books on the history of religion.
[4] http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/religion/ishtar.htm
Describes the goddess Ishtar
[5] http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/home_set.html
Pictures of the Gods, Goddesses, Demons and Monsters of Ancient Mesopotamia
[6] http://wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/SUMER.HTM
A good site that provided a brief overview of not only polytheism in Ancient Mesopotamia, but covered information of their monarchy, their writings, science and mathematics, and their laws.
Additional Links
[7) http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/women.html
The University of Chicago provided a short background of the role of women in Ancient Mesopotamia. Their likenesses were many times placed inside the temples within these city-states.
[8] http://mesopotamia.lib.uchicago.edu/lessons_PDF/religion_a.pdf
A clear pdf chart of the major gods of Ancient Mesopotamia. A solid printout to supplement any lesson of Ancient Mesopotamia and religion.
Describe how irrigation, metal smithing, slavery, the domestication of animals, and inventions such as the wheel, the sail, and the plow contributed to the growth of Mesopotamian civilizations.
Focus Question: How did irrigation, metal smithing, slavery, the domestication of animals and inventions contribute to the growth of Mesopotamian civilizations?
It happened first in Ancient Mesopotamia from the University of Chicago offers a short summary of the major contributions of Mesopotamian civilization.
Ancient Tablets, Ancient Graves: Accessing Women's Lives in Mesopotamia from the Women in World History Curriculum Project.
1) Mesopotamia is located in present-day Iraq and Iran.
2) Irrigation
Prior to irrigation, many areas of Mesopotamia suffered from low water supply and dramatic spring floods which would bring a great deal of silt as a result of snow melt in the highlands of Anatolia. The plains region of Mesopotamia also suffered from poor soil, drought, and soil salinity.
An example of an ancient irrigation system.
3) Metal Smithing
4) Slavery
5) Domestication of Animals
6) The Wheel
The picture above shows an ancient wooden wheel.
The image above shows the progression which likely led up to the creation of the wheel.
7) The Sail
8) The Plow
Ancient Mesopotamians are credited with creating the following:
1) A system of writing. See also material on writing in ancient Mesopotamia from the BBC.
2) Sanitation techniques
3) Concepts that we know today as the Pythagorean Theorem
The image above shows the Pythagorean Theorem
4) Use of the concept of “zero.” The invention of zerois attributed to the Mayan civilization in South America and the Hindu civilization in India.
5) Glass
6) The arch
The above image shows an example of an ancient arch.
7) The column
8) The dome
It happened first in Ancient Mesopotamia from the University of Chicago offers a short summary of the major contributions of Mesopotamian civilization.
Ancient Tablets, Ancient Graves: Accessing Women's Lives in Mesopotamia from the Women in World History Curriculum Project.
1) Mesopotamia is located in present-day Iraq and Iran.
2) Irrigation
- Supplied clean and reliable water
- Allowed crops to be grown where water was not readily available in nature
- Enabled the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to be utilized to their full potential
- Also enabled more people to make the transformation from Hunter-Gatherers to farming communities.
Prior to irrigation, many areas of Mesopotamia suffered from low water supply and dramatic spring floods which would bring a great deal of silt as a result of snow melt in the highlands of Anatolia. The plains region of Mesopotamia also suffered from poor soil, drought, and soil salinity.
An example of an ancient irrigation system.
3) Metal Smithing
- Assisted in the development of Urban civilization
- Known to have occurred in one of the world’s earliest cities: Uruk
- Allowed for the creation of better more reliable tools. Most tools at the time were made out of animal bone, wood, or stone, while they were effective in activities such as farming and hunting.
4) Slavery
- Free, forced labor with which ancient cities were built
- Much akin to slavery in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries
- Slaves were not paid for their labor, thereby allowing slave owners to require as much work from them as desired
- Unlike Slavery in the USA during the 18 and 19th centuries, most of the Slaves in this time period were prisoners of war .
5) Domestication of Animals
- Hand-in-hand with the plow, domesticated animals allowed farm work to be completed with a far greater amount of ease than ever before
- Allowed for a shift from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary, village lifestyle
- Occurred between 10,000 BC and 6,000 BC
- Herding of cattle became a regular practice
6) The Wheel
The picture above shows an ancient wooden wheel.
- Estimated to have been created around 8,000 BC, the first known wheel was found in Mesopotamia and dates back to 3.500 BC
- Allowed for transportation of goods to become much more efficient
The image above shows the progression which likely led up to the creation of the wheel.
7) The Sail
- Much like the wheel, the sail allowed for more efficient transportation
- Allowed ships to be used in both war and trade
- Boats which had previously been rowed now gained another avenue for propulsion
- Invented in approximately 5,000 BC
- Increased the reach of many civilizations, allowing
8) The Plow
- Major achievement for Mesopotamians
- Particularly important was the invention of the seeder plow which allowed the farmer to till the land while planting seeds, thus saving much time since the seed would be dropped right into the furrow that the plow had just created.
Ancient Mesopotamians are credited with creating the following:
1) A system of writing. See also material on writing in ancient Mesopotamia from the BBC.
2) Sanitation techniques
3) Concepts that we know today as the Pythagorean Theorem
The image above shows the Pythagorean Theorem
4) Use of the concept of “zero.” The invention of zerois attributed to the Mayan civilization in South America and the Hindu civilization in India.
5) Glass
6) The arch
The above image shows an example of an ancient arch.
7) The column
8) The dome
Describe the important achievements of Mesopotamian civilization.
Describe the important achievements of Mesopotamian civilization.
a. its system of writing (and its importance in record keeping and tax collection)
b. monumental architecture (the ziggurat)
c. art (large relief sculpture, mosaics, and cylinder seals)
Literacy in the Middle East: The dark blue areas were literate at around 2300 BCE. The dark green areas were literate at around 1300 BCE. The light green areas were literate at around 300 BCE.
Focus Question: How did writing, architecture, and art impact the development of Mesopotamian society?
Go on a virtual archaeological dig at Dig Into History Mesopotamia.
Essential Understandings (see also 7.6)
A. System of Writing
Gilgamesh Between Two Bull-Men Supporting a Winged Sun Disk, 9th Century BCE
1) The Epic of Gilgamesh was the first great work of world literature, written around 1200 BCE as a 3,000 line poem. It tells the story of a legendary king, Gilgamesh who ruled the Babylonian city of Uruk.
In the story, the king defeats a demon and spurned the advances Ishtar, the goddess of love. The poem also tells the story of a great Flood. It was undiscovered until 1872 when George Smith found the material in the British Museum.
For more, see The Buried Book: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Great Epic by David Damrosch, Henry Holt, 2007.
2) Scholars now contend that writing began independently in four separate parts of the world ("Before Twitter, Tweets Were Done in Clay," William Mullen, Chicago Tribune, October 26, 2010):
Writing propelled the transition from primitive society to urban areas featuring more complex systems of law, commerce and thinking.
3) Writing began in the Middle East between 8000 and 3200 BCE when the Mesopotamians used clay "tokens" to count their goods. Each shape represented a word, or logogram. However, the rise of the state in about 3200 BCE increased the complexity of the information they wished to store, and so clay tablets were used to record script composed of the symbols on the tokens. From 3100 BCE, the state required each person to record their name along with details of their goods. As writing personal names logographically was very difficult, a system of phonetic writing was developed which gradually evolved into Cuneiform(the script used by the Babylonians and Assyrians).
Cuneiform example from a tablet in the British Museum, London.
Click here for further examples of Cuneiform
Click here for an interactive look at an early clay tablet from the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago.
4) Record keepers were very important and busy people. Since only a few people could write, scribes had one of the most valuable skills in the ancient world. Scribes held positions of great respect. These scribes recorded sales and taxes, tax payments, gifts for gods, and marriages and deaths.
5) For an excellent lesson plan on the emergence of writing, see The Cuneiform Writing System in Ancient Mesopotamia
This activity uses translations from cuneiform tablets to teach students more about women's lives in ancient Mesopotamia.
B. Monumental ArchitectureRuins of a ziggurat in Ebla, Syria
1. Ziggurats
2. Examples of Ziggurats
This video recreates the construction of the Ziggurat of Ur to scale in time lapse.
C. Art
the worship of the sun-god, Shamash. Limestone cylinder-seal, Mesopotamia
To see examples of Mesopotamian art, visit this link for the Beijing World Art Museum
Large Relief Sculptures.
For more see Art and Architecture from Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History from the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago.
Cone Mosiacs
Cylinder seal and impression: cattle herd in a wheat field. Limestone, Mesopotamia, Uruk Period (4100 BC–3000 BC
Cylinder Seals
The Role of Women from Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History from the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago.
a. its system of writing (and its importance in record keeping and tax collection)
b. monumental architecture (the ziggurat)
c. art (large relief sculpture, mosaics, and cylinder seals)
Literacy in the Middle East: The dark blue areas were literate at around 2300 BCE. The dark green areas were literate at around 1300 BCE. The light green areas were literate at around 300 BCE.
Focus Question: How did writing, architecture, and art impact the development of Mesopotamian society?
Go on a virtual archaeological dig at Dig Into History Mesopotamia.
Essential Understandings (see also 7.6)
A. System of Writing
Gilgamesh Between Two Bull-Men Supporting a Winged Sun Disk, 9th Century BCE
1) The Epic of Gilgamesh was the first great work of world literature, written around 1200 BCE as a 3,000 line poem. It tells the story of a legendary king, Gilgamesh who ruled the Babylonian city of Uruk.
In the story, the king defeats a demon and spurned the advances Ishtar, the goddess of love. The poem also tells the story of a great Flood. It was undiscovered until 1872 when George Smith found the material in the British Museum.
For more, see The Buried Book: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Great Epic by David Damrosch, Henry Holt, 2007.
2) Scholars now contend that writing began independently in four separate parts of the world ("Before Twitter, Tweets Were Done in Clay," William Mullen, Chicago Tribune, October 26, 2010):
- Mesopotamia (around 3200 BCE). This writing enabled bureaucracies and business to keep track of records for trading and commerce.
- Egypt (around 3200 BCE). Writing was used in religious ceremonies and to affirm the supremacy of the Egyptian king.
- China (around 1200 BCE). Writing related to religious practices.
- Mesoamerica (present-day southern Mexico and Guatemala during the first millennium). Writing connected to Mayan gods and the Mayan calendar.
Writing propelled the transition from primitive society to urban areas featuring more complex systems of law, commerce and thinking.
3) Writing began in the Middle East between 8000 and 3200 BCE when the Mesopotamians used clay "tokens" to count their goods. Each shape represented a word, or logogram. However, the rise of the state in about 3200 BCE increased the complexity of the information they wished to store, and so clay tablets were used to record script composed of the symbols on the tokens. From 3100 BCE, the state required each person to record their name along with details of their goods. As writing personal names logographically was very difficult, a system of phonetic writing was developed which gradually evolved into Cuneiform(the script used by the Babylonians and Assyrians).
Cuneiform example from a tablet in the British Museum, London.
Click here for further examples of Cuneiform
Click here for an interactive look at an early clay tablet from the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago.
4) Record keepers were very important and busy people. Since only a few people could write, scribes had one of the most valuable skills in the ancient world. Scribes held positions of great respect. These scribes recorded sales and taxes, tax payments, gifts for gods, and marriages and deaths.
5) For an excellent lesson plan on the emergence of writing, see The Cuneiform Writing System in Ancient Mesopotamia
This activity uses translations from cuneiform tablets to teach students more about women's lives in ancient Mesopotamia.
B. Monumental ArchitectureRuins of a ziggurat in Ebla, Syria
1. Ziggurats
2. Examples of Ziggurats
- Were a form of temple common to the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians of ancient Mesopotamia.
- Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside.
- The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit.
- Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit.
- The Mesopotamian ziggurats were not places for public worship or ceremonies. They were believed to be dwelling places for the gods. Through the ziggurat the gods could be close to mankind and each city had its own patron god. Only priests were permitted inside the ziggurat and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs. As a result the priests were very powerful members of Sumerian society.
- There are 32 known ziggurats near Mesopotamia. Four of them are in Iran, and the rest are mostly in Iraq. The most recent to be discovered was Sialk, in central Iran.
This video recreates the construction of the Ziggurat of Ur to scale in time lapse.
C. Art
the worship of the sun-god, Shamash. Limestone cylinder-seal, Mesopotamia
To see examples of Mesopotamian art, visit this link for the Beijing World Art Museum
Large Relief Sculptures.
- A piece of art that projects from, but belongs to, the wall.
- While there are many different types of relief sculptures, Mesopotamians were most known for their large relief sculptures.
- The most common of these was the Ishtar Gate, which was built under Nebuchadnezzar around 575 B.C. While a miraculous piece of art, it also served a purpose in protecting the city of Babylon.
For more see Art and Architecture from Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History from the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago.
Cone Mosiacs
- In the 4th-3rd millennium BCE, Mesopotomians developed a type of mosaic composed of slender cones of baked clay with some base ends painted red, black, and white.
- These were embedded in mud brick walls to create a decorative protective coating in geometric patterns, perhaps derived from textile or matting materials.
Cylinder seal and impression: cattle herd in a wheat field. Limestone, Mesopotamia, Uruk Period (4100 BC–3000 BC
Cylinder Seals
- Cylinder seals were first made in Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq, soon after 3500 BC.
- Paper had not been invented, so documents were written in cuneiform on clay tablets and then wrapped in clay envelopes.
- The seals were used to make an impression (or 'seal') in the soft clay, to indicate that the message on the tablet was genuine. People continued to use cylinder seals to 'seal' ancient documents for about three thousand years. The seals are comparable to modern-day notarization.
The Role of Women from Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History from the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago.
Describe who Hammurabi was and explain the basic principle of justice in Hammurabi’s Code (“an eye for an eye”).
Focus Question: What were the basic principles of justice in Hammurabi's code?1) King Hammurabi
Ruler of Babylon from 1792-1750 BCE. As a ruler, he oversaw a great expansion of his kingdom from a city-state to an empire. Hammurabi’s code was a series of judgments inscribed on a large stone slate.
2) Hammurabi’s Code and “An Eye for an Eye”“An eye for an eye” is the idea that a punishment should be equal to the crime committed. The code did not apply equally to all people. The harshness of the punishment depended on the societal importance of the victim and the lawbreaker . The higher the class of the victim, the greater the penalty was.
Hammurabi’s Code contained 282 laws organized in different categories. These included trade, labor, property, and family. The code had laws for adopting children, practicing medicine, hiring wagons or boats, and controlling dangerous animals. The code essentially governed the people of Babylonia, and helped settle conflicts in all areas of life, and therefore is an important reflection to Babylonian Society.
3) Principles of JusticeA person who accidentally broke a law was just as guilty as someone who meant to break the law. People who could not always control the outcome of their work, such as doctors, had to be very careful. “ If a surgeon performed a major operation on a citizen with a bronze lancet and has caused the death of this citizen… his hand shall be cut off.”
Hammurabi's Code: What Does It Tell Us About Old Babylonia?
Laws and Government: Hammurabi's Code from Learn North Carolina.
Ruler of Babylon from 1792-1750 BCE. As a ruler, he oversaw a great expansion of his kingdom from a city-state to an empire. Hammurabi’s code was a series of judgments inscribed on a large stone slate.
2) Hammurabi’s Code and “An Eye for an Eye”“An eye for an eye” is the idea that a punishment should be equal to the crime committed. The code did not apply equally to all people. The harshness of the punishment depended on the societal importance of the victim and the lawbreaker . The higher the class of the victim, the greater the penalty was.
Hammurabi’s Code contained 282 laws organized in different categories. These included trade, labor, property, and family. The code had laws for adopting children, practicing medicine, hiring wagons or boats, and controlling dangerous animals. The code essentially governed the people of Babylonia, and helped settle conflicts in all areas of life, and therefore is an important reflection to Babylonian Society.
3) Principles of JusticeA person who accidentally broke a law was just as guilty as someone who meant to break the law. People who could not always control the outcome of their work, such as doctors, had to be very careful. “ If a surgeon performed a major operation on a citizen with a bronze lancet and has caused the death of this citizen… his hand shall be cut off.”
Hammurabi's Code: What Does It Tell Us About Old Babylonia?
Laws and Government: Hammurabi's Code from Learn North Carolina.
https://resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispaces.com/AncientCivilizations