Human Origins in Africa through the Neolithic Age
Describe the great climatic and environmental changes that shaped the earth and eventually permitted the growth of human life.
Summary of the History of Life on Earth
The oceans began to form 4.4 billion years ago, followed by the first life forms about 3.8 billion years ago. These life forms were single celled organisms that did not require large amounts of oxygen and instead used hydrogen to create energy. These single celled organisms moved from water to land about 2.5- 3 billion years ago. These life forms created methane, which heated the Earth, and helped in the creation of many more of these organisms.
Essential Understandings
Oxygen-producing organisms soon formed, and this greatly added to the amount of oxygen present in the atmosphere. The oxygen that was produced helped to create the ozone layer, which rose above the atmosphere and helped block the Earth from ultraviolet radiation. Earth’s temperature began to fall because the ozone layer helped to cool it. With methane and carbon dioxide slowly leaving the atmosphere, many organisms began to die off or change to survive.
Multicellular organisms developed, and, shielded from a mass extinction that happened about 1 billion years ago, the multicellular organisms began to form into the first invertebrates.
Plants started to grow on the land, and plant-eaters evolved and multiplied with the source of food. Soon, vertebrates, or animals with bones, began to develop, and life forms on Earth continued to grow in number rand diversity, including many reptiles, such as dinosaurs and crocodiles, as well as plants, such as ferns.
Extinction Events
According to Janet Larsen of the Earth Policy Institute, the 5 great extinction events were:
The Creation of the Solar System and Earth
The path from the start of the universe to the existence of human beings and life on the planet Earth, spans tens of billions of years and unimaginable spaces. Here is a quick look at that complex and varied path.
Expansion of the Universe
The generally accepted theory on how the universe began is called the **Big Bang Theory**.
First posited by Georges Lemaitre in 1927, the theory says that all the stuff of the universe is the result of a massive explosion that happened 10 to 20 billion years ago. The theory seeks to explain why the universe is expanding, like ripples in a pool when a rock is dropped in.
The universe is full of dust, thought to be one of the results of the Big Bang. About 5 billion years ago, a nebula, a cloud of dust and gas, was the start of the solar system. A solar system forms around a star, which is born inside a nebula. Planets are the left-over matter after a start forms. The gravitational pull of a star pulls the planets into orbit around it. Our solar system has eight or nine planets (there is a current dispute on whether Pluto is actually a planet), which are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
Although it is still a mystery as to why the Earth’s atmosphere formed in the way it did, the atmosphere’s formation was essential to life forming on our planet. At first, the atmosphere would not have been able to support life as we know it. It was composed of different amounts of water, carbon dioxide and monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, hydrogen chloride and oxygen than it is now. There was very little oxygen, and much larger amounts of other gasses in the air.. Earth was no more than an extremely hot and large rock, that soon split into the Earth and moon . The most important factor, many believe, that contributed to the formation of life on Earth, was water.
The oceans began to form 4.4 billion years ago, followed by the first life forms about 3.8 billion years ago. These life forms were single celled organisms that did not require large amounts of oxygen and instead used hydrogen to create energy. These single celled organisms moved from water to land about 2.5- 3 billion years ago. These life forms created methane, which heated the Earth, and helped in the creation of many more of these organisms.
Essential Understandings
Oxygen-producing organisms soon formed, and this greatly added to the amount of oxygen present in the atmosphere. The oxygen that was produced helped to create the ozone layer, which rose above the atmosphere and helped block the Earth from ultraviolet radiation. Earth’s temperature began to fall because the ozone layer helped to cool it. With methane and carbon dioxide slowly leaving the atmosphere, many organisms began to die off or change to survive.
Multicellular organisms developed, and, shielded from a mass extinction that happened about 1 billion years ago, the multicellular organisms began to form into the first invertebrates.
Plants started to grow on the land, and plant-eaters evolved and multiplied with the source of food. Soon, vertebrates, or animals with bones, began to develop, and life forms on Earth continued to grow in number rand diversity, including many reptiles, such as dinosaurs and crocodiles, as well as plants, such as ferns.
Extinction Events
According to Janet Larsen of the Earth Policy Institute, the 5 great extinction events were:
- 440 million years ago, some 85 percent of marine animal species were wiped out in the earth's first known mass extinction.
- 367 million years ago, many species of fish and 70 percent of marine invertebrates perished in a major extinction event.
- 245 million years ago, up to 95 percent of all animals—nearly the entire animal kingdom—were lost in what is thought to be the worst extinction in history.
- 208 million years ago, another mass extinction took a toll primarily on sea creatures, but also some land animals.
- 65 million years ago, three quarters of all species—including the dinosaurs—were eliminated. Ice ages followed, and then the Earth became populated with mammals, and eventually, people—who came on the scene a mere 230 thousand years ago.
The Creation of the Solar System and Earth
The path from the start of the universe to the existence of human beings and life on the planet Earth, spans tens of billions of years and unimaginable spaces. Here is a quick look at that complex and varied path.
Expansion of the Universe
The generally accepted theory on how the universe began is called the **Big Bang Theory**.
First posited by Georges Lemaitre in 1927, the theory says that all the stuff of the universe is the result of a massive explosion that happened 10 to 20 billion years ago. The theory seeks to explain why the universe is expanding, like ripples in a pool when a rock is dropped in.
The universe is full of dust, thought to be one of the results of the Big Bang. About 5 billion years ago, a nebula, a cloud of dust and gas, was the start of the solar system. A solar system forms around a star, which is born inside a nebula. Planets are the left-over matter after a start forms. The gravitational pull of a star pulls the planets into orbit around it. Our solar system has eight or nine planets (there is a current dispute on whether Pluto is actually a planet), which are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
Although it is still a mystery as to why the Earth’s atmosphere formed in the way it did, the atmosphere’s formation was essential to life forming on our planet. At first, the atmosphere would not have been able to support life as we know it. It was composed of different amounts of water, carbon dioxide and monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, hydrogen chloride and oxygen than it is now. There was very little oxygen, and much larger amounts of other gasses in the air.. Earth was no more than an extremely hot and large rock, that soon split into the Earth and moon . The most important factor, many believe, that contributed to the formation of life on Earth, was water.
Identify sites in Africa where archaeologists have found evidence of the origins of modern human beings.
Focus Questions
Africa and Human AncestorsAfrica has proven to be the home of many of the human species’ early ancestors. In 1924, the first evidence of this was found by Raymond Dart near Taung, South Africa. There, Dart found fossils belonging to an Australopithecus africanus. This was a significant find; Dart noticed that a skull somewhat resembled that of modern humans, although the size of the brain actually resembled that of apes. Australopithecus africanus lived about 3 million years ago.
Nutcracker ManThe next big find happened in 1959 in Tanzania where Louis and Mary Leakey, along with others, unearthed the skull of Australopithecus boisei. The skull was the first of its kind found and was given the nickname “Nutcracker Man.”
Lucy Skeleton
Probably one of the most well known fossil finds in Africa happened in 1974 in Hadar, Ethiopia. This was the discovery of the famous “Lucy” skeleton, which dated back 3.2 million years. The skeleton was the most complete one found of an Australopithecus, and belonged to the Australopithecus afarensis. Her skeleton showed that she was walking upright.
Film: "Finding Lucy" from PBS website Evolution which depits the landmark hominid fossil find by Don Johanson and his team in Ethiopia.
Lucy's Baby
Mary Leakey, British archaeologist and anthropologist, 1977
In 1978 Mary Leakey again added to the understanding of human evolution by finding footprints of early human ancestors in Tanzania dating back almost 3.6 million years. Other important fossils found in Africa include a 4.5-million-year-old Ardipithecus ramidus found in Ethiopia. This discovery was significant, since it showed humans walking upright at the earliest point yet. "Lucy's Baby," Selam (which means “peace” in Amharic, the language spoken in Ethiopia) was a recent, and famous find, again, in Ethiopia. The remains of Selam were dated as being about 120,000 years older than Lucy’s but, because of the similarities and closeness in discovery, the nickname of “Baby” has stuck, even though the “baby” turned out to be older than the mother.
Dikika fossil found by Zeresenay Alemseged Youtube video from BBC World News
To date, over 38 fossil sites of ancient human ancestors have been discovered in Africa alone, all of which are 1-3 million years old.
First Peoples in the Americas
Discoveries in Africa have sparked interest in when people first lived in the Americas. In 2004, Russian scientists located a 30,000 year-old site in Arctic Siberia, not far from the land bridge that is believed to have connected Asia and North America. These peoples may have been the ancestors to the first peoples in the Americas since the site is twice as old as Monte Verde in Chile where scientists have found the oldest signs of human settlement in the Americas ("Oldest Proof found of hunters living in Arctic Siberia," Paul Recer, The Boston Globe, January 2, 2004).
Out of Africa Hypothesis
The "Out of Africa Hypothesis" has begun to test the theory that all human beings have come from a small group in Africa and subsequently moved to other regions of the world. This theory originated in the 1990s through "mitochondrial DNA studies."
Teaching Resources on Human Origins
Human Evolution Lesson Plan from WGBH Teacher's Domain
New Tools Suggest Humans Left Africa Earlier Via Arabia from NPR, January 28, 2011.
Human Lineage Timeline and Human Evolution Interactive Documentary from the Institute for Human Origins.
Range map of the Cro-Magnon man (Homo sapiens) up to 37,500 years before the present
The Origins of Humankindfrom the PBS website Evolution.
Hall of Human Origins from the American Museum of Natural History
Understanding Evolutionfrom the University of California at Berkeley
Atlas of Human Journey provides an interactive world map with video segments on the spread of humans from 200,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE from "The Genographic Project" and National Geographic.
For an overview of the latest findings on human origins, go to the Early History section of website, The Story of Africa from the British Broadcasting Company.
What Does It Mean To Be Human?is an informative website from the Smithsonian's Human Origins Initiative. Thisarticle from the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of Natural History's Anthronotes has a short essay on the permanent exhibition as well as a good overview article on the current knowledge in the field, and a short essay on bipedalism.
Evidence: How Do We Know What We Know ? is an interactive website about human origins from the Exploratorium museum.
- Where in Africa have archaeologists found evidence of the origins of modern human beings?
- How do these findings alter previous knowledge of the origin of modern humans?
Africa and Human AncestorsAfrica has proven to be the home of many of the human species’ early ancestors. In 1924, the first evidence of this was found by Raymond Dart near Taung, South Africa. There, Dart found fossils belonging to an Australopithecus africanus. This was a significant find; Dart noticed that a skull somewhat resembled that of modern humans, although the size of the brain actually resembled that of apes. Australopithecus africanus lived about 3 million years ago.
Nutcracker ManThe next big find happened in 1959 in Tanzania where Louis and Mary Leakey, along with others, unearthed the skull of Australopithecus boisei. The skull was the first of its kind found and was given the nickname “Nutcracker Man.”
Lucy Skeleton
Probably one of the most well known fossil finds in Africa happened in 1974 in Hadar, Ethiopia. This was the discovery of the famous “Lucy” skeleton, which dated back 3.2 million years. The skeleton was the most complete one found of an Australopithecus, and belonged to the Australopithecus afarensis. Her skeleton showed that she was walking upright.
Film: "Finding Lucy" from PBS website Evolution which depits the landmark hominid fossil find by Don Johanson and his team in Ethiopia.
Lucy's Baby
Mary Leakey, British archaeologist and anthropologist, 1977
In 1978 Mary Leakey again added to the understanding of human evolution by finding footprints of early human ancestors in Tanzania dating back almost 3.6 million years. Other important fossils found in Africa include a 4.5-million-year-old Ardipithecus ramidus found in Ethiopia. This discovery was significant, since it showed humans walking upright at the earliest point yet. "Lucy's Baby," Selam (which means “peace” in Amharic, the language spoken in Ethiopia) was a recent, and famous find, again, in Ethiopia. The remains of Selam were dated as being about 120,000 years older than Lucy’s but, because of the similarities and closeness in discovery, the nickname of “Baby” has stuck, even though the “baby” turned out to be older than the mother.
Dikika fossil found by Zeresenay Alemseged Youtube video from BBC World News
To date, over 38 fossil sites of ancient human ancestors have been discovered in Africa alone, all of which are 1-3 million years old.
First Peoples in the Americas
Discoveries in Africa have sparked interest in when people first lived in the Americas. In 2004, Russian scientists located a 30,000 year-old site in Arctic Siberia, not far from the land bridge that is believed to have connected Asia and North America. These peoples may have been the ancestors to the first peoples in the Americas since the site is twice as old as Monte Verde in Chile where scientists have found the oldest signs of human settlement in the Americas ("Oldest Proof found of hunters living in Arctic Siberia," Paul Recer, The Boston Globe, January 2, 2004).
Out of Africa Hypothesis
The "Out of Africa Hypothesis" has begun to test the theory that all human beings have come from a small group in Africa and subsequently moved to other regions of the world. This theory originated in the 1990s through "mitochondrial DNA studies."
Teaching Resources on Human Origins
Human Evolution Lesson Plan from WGBH Teacher's Domain
New Tools Suggest Humans Left Africa Earlier Via Arabia from NPR, January 28, 2011.
Human Lineage Timeline and Human Evolution Interactive Documentary from the Institute for Human Origins.
Range map of the Cro-Magnon man (Homo sapiens) up to 37,500 years before the present
The Origins of Humankindfrom the PBS website Evolution.
Hall of Human Origins from the American Museum of Natural History
Understanding Evolutionfrom the University of California at Berkeley
Atlas of Human Journey provides an interactive world map with video segments on the spread of humans from 200,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE from "The Genographic Project" and National Geographic.
For an overview of the latest findings on human origins, go to the Early History section of website, The Story of Africa from the British Broadcasting Company.
What Does It Mean To Be Human?is an informative website from the Smithsonian's Human Origins Initiative. Thisarticle from the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of Natural History's Anthronotes has a short essay on the permanent exhibition as well as a good overview article on the current knowledge in the field, and a short essay on bipedalism.
Evidence: How Do We Know What We Know ? is an interactive website about human origins from the Exploratorium museum.
Describe the characteristics of the hunter-gatherer societies of the Paleolithic Age (their use of tools and fire, basic hunting weapons, beads and other jewelry).
Focus Question: What were the characteristics of the hunter-gatherer societies of the Paleolithic Age?
Excavation of a Stone Age Cave, Island of Gotland, 1891
Hunter-gatherer societies were marked by the use of tools and fire, basic hunting weapons, beads and other jewelry. These societies also had a basic form of social organization, a concept that applies to all human societies throughout time. Students need to understand how different groups organized themselves to sustain their lives economically, socially, politically, and philosophically.
Inventing the Stone Age, an interactive timeline from John H. Lienhard at the University of Houston.
African Rock Artfrom the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Hunters with Amnesia is a group work lesson plan that asks students to create a survival plan for a group of hunters-gatherers who are suffering from total memory loss. Students must understand the nature of prehistoric societies in order to complete the assignment.
Paleolithic Age (Up to - 10,000 BCE)This age can be defined beginning with the earliest human-like behaviors of raw stone tool manufacture and ending with the beginning of cultivation. The people of the Paleolithic Age, or the Old Stone Age, lived in hunter-gatherer communities. This meant that food was found on a day to day basis, as opposed to the modern day agricultural methods of food production and preservation.
Timeline of Tool Makers through the Paleolithic Age (*Modern man’s scientific name is Homo sapien
HabitatModern man’s earliest predecessors sought safety from the environment and predators in natural shelters such as caves and rock overhangs. Eventually, early forms of men learned to better their caves with stone floors, walls at the entrances to block out competitors and invaders, and fire pits. Ultimately, they began fashioning entirely new habitats in areas that did not have naturally occurring shelter. Usually, these crude buildings were made out of wood and stone and in the shape of tents. The manufacture of such habitats may have been influenced by the cold weather of the ice ages which went hand in hand with the Paleolithic age.
Location map of Homo Sapiens Aurignacian culture, between 37,000 and 28,000 BP. French version. Author: # Carte_Neandertaliens_classiques.svg: User:120
HuntingThe people of the Paleolithic Age were nomadic. They would have traveled on foot, possibly over large tracts of land, to gather and hunt for food, migrating between different encampments at different times of the year. Animals including fish and birds were the main source of food for these people. It would have been difficult to rely on plant food during the Ice Age, so most people had to rely on a consistent supply of meat. Bones from archaeological sites prove every part of the animal was used, as all parts were considered essential to the survival of the society. After the meat was cut from the bones, they were shattered in order to obtain sustenance from the marrow. Eating fat is a great way of storing energy, and due to the cold climate, the parts of the animal that were high in fat would be most valued. Storing food would have also been essential to the community due to its inconsistent source. Meat could have been covered up and frozen, cut up into strips and dried in the wind, or smoked above a fire.
Tools and FireFootwear was created to withstand the cold temperatures of the Ice Age. Bast shoes were made out of birch bark or linden tree. Harpoons were constructed in order to hunt larger mammals, such as Wooly Mammoths. The blade would be made from sharpened stone while the shaft would be made from wood. Crude flutes have been found that are made from either mammoth tusk or animal bone. Dishware would have been made from stone or wood as well.
African biface artifact dated in Late Stone Age period
People of the Old Stone Age would have needed fire for many things: cooking, defense, comfort, etc. At this early stage of man’s history, embers were taken from a previously known source of fire (Volcanic rock, lightning) and then was carefully safeguarded, for it was not yet possible for humans to create fire. The use of fire for cooking greatly magnified the diversity of food available to man, just as its heat in winter extended their habitat. Eventually, Stone Age peoples learned how to make fire from flint.
JewelryThe jewelry of the Paleolithic Age was often fastened from the same materials used in the making of their tools. Perhaps other more decorative materials would have been used (such as seashells). Not much jewelry was worn, but the jewelry that has been found through archeological excavations reveals that it was mostly made of animal bone.
external image Red_apple.jpg
Lesson Plans for Teachers and Students.
Lesson from World History For Us All "Getting the Grip On the Food Supply: Domestication and Its Results, 10000-4000 BCE" Includes comparison between hunter and gatherers to farmers.
Links:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rock/hd_rock.htm
http://www.wsu.edu:8001/vwsu/gened/learn-modules/top_longfor/timeline/timeline.html
http://donsmaps.com/indextools.html
http://donsmaps.com/musicalinstruments.html
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab10
http://teachers.redclay.k12.de.us/mary.tise/stoneagelinks.html
Excavation of a Stone Age Cave, Island of Gotland, 1891
Hunter-gatherer societies were marked by the use of tools and fire, basic hunting weapons, beads and other jewelry. These societies also had a basic form of social organization, a concept that applies to all human societies throughout time. Students need to understand how different groups organized themselves to sustain their lives economically, socially, politically, and philosophically.
Inventing the Stone Age, an interactive timeline from John H. Lienhard at the University of Houston.
African Rock Artfrom the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Hunters with Amnesia is a group work lesson plan that asks students to create a survival plan for a group of hunters-gatherers who are suffering from total memory loss. Students must understand the nature of prehistoric societies in order to complete the assignment.
Paleolithic Age (Up to - 10,000 BCE)This age can be defined beginning with the earliest human-like behaviors of raw stone tool manufacture and ending with the beginning of cultivation. The people of the Paleolithic Age, or the Old Stone Age, lived in hunter-gatherer communities. This meant that food was found on a day to day basis, as opposed to the modern day agricultural methods of food production and preservation.
Timeline of Tool Makers through the Paleolithic Age (*Modern man’s scientific name is Homo sapien
- Homo habilis - 2.2 to 1.6 million years BCE
- Homo erectus - 2 to 0.4 million years BCE
- Homo sapiens - 400,000 to 200,000 years BCE
- Homo sapiens neandertalensis - 200,000 to 30,000 years BCE
- Homo sapiens sapiens - 130,000 years BCE to present
HabitatModern man’s earliest predecessors sought safety from the environment and predators in natural shelters such as caves and rock overhangs. Eventually, early forms of men learned to better their caves with stone floors, walls at the entrances to block out competitors and invaders, and fire pits. Ultimately, they began fashioning entirely new habitats in areas that did not have naturally occurring shelter. Usually, these crude buildings were made out of wood and stone and in the shape of tents. The manufacture of such habitats may have been influenced by the cold weather of the ice ages which went hand in hand with the Paleolithic age.
Location map of Homo Sapiens Aurignacian culture, between 37,000 and 28,000 BP. French version. Author: # Carte_Neandertaliens_classiques.svg: User:120
HuntingThe people of the Paleolithic Age were nomadic. They would have traveled on foot, possibly over large tracts of land, to gather and hunt for food, migrating between different encampments at different times of the year. Animals including fish and birds were the main source of food for these people. It would have been difficult to rely on plant food during the Ice Age, so most people had to rely on a consistent supply of meat. Bones from archaeological sites prove every part of the animal was used, as all parts were considered essential to the survival of the society. After the meat was cut from the bones, they were shattered in order to obtain sustenance from the marrow. Eating fat is a great way of storing energy, and due to the cold climate, the parts of the animal that were high in fat would be most valued. Storing food would have also been essential to the community due to its inconsistent source. Meat could have been covered up and frozen, cut up into strips and dried in the wind, or smoked above a fire.
Tools and FireFootwear was created to withstand the cold temperatures of the Ice Age. Bast shoes were made out of birch bark or linden tree. Harpoons were constructed in order to hunt larger mammals, such as Wooly Mammoths. The blade would be made from sharpened stone while the shaft would be made from wood. Crude flutes have been found that are made from either mammoth tusk or animal bone. Dishware would have been made from stone or wood as well.
African biface artifact dated in Late Stone Age period
People of the Old Stone Age would have needed fire for many things: cooking, defense, comfort, etc. At this early stage of man’s history, embers were taken from a previously known source of fire (Volcanic rock, lightning) and then was carefully safeguarded, for it was not yet possible for humans to create fire. The use of fire for cooking greatly magnified the diversity of food available to man, just as its heat in winter extended their habitat. Eventually, Stone Age peoples learned how to make fire from flint.
JewelryThe jewelry of the Paleolithic Age was often fastened from the same materials used in the making of their tools. Perhaps other more decorative materials would have been used (such as seashells). Not much jewelry was worn, but the jewelry that has been found through archeological excavations reveals that it was mostly made of animal bone.
external image Red_apple.jpg
Lesson Plans for Teachers and Students.
Lesson from World History For Us All "Getting the Grip On the Food Supply: Domestication and Its Results, 10000-4000 BCE" Includes comparison between hunter and gatherers to farmers.
Links:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rock/hd_rock.htm
http://www.wsu.edu:8001/vwsu/gened/learn-modules/top_longfor/timeline/timeline.html
http://donsmaps.com/indextools.html
http://donsmaps.com/musicalinstruments.html
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab10
http://teachers.redclay.k12.de.us/mary.tise/stoneagelinks.html
Explain the importance of the inventions of metallurgy and agriculture (the growing of crops and the domestication of animals)?
Focus Question: Why were metallurgy and agriculture (the growing of crops and the domestication of animals) important to the development of human societies?
What is Metallurgy?Metal production in Ancient Middle East
Metallurgy is the process of working metal into artifacts such as tools and toys. Metallurgy is one of the oldest applied . Its history can be traced back to around 6000 BCE. Of course, its form at that time was primitive, but the shaping of metals became extremely important to many ancient human societies. Metallurgy was used in early societies and greatly benefited their civilization.
More Information on Metallurgy
Timeline of Metal Usage [1]
The above image shows examples of ancient copper tools.
Uses and Importance of Metals
Gold and silver were used mostly in rings, bracelets, and other jewelry. Gold (and silver) are very malleable and could be smelted at relatively low temperatures. This means they can be extracted and worked easily. They are also both quite rare and beautiful and gold specifically is most suitable for onrnamental uses since it is very soft. Gold and silver had intrinsic value and became the first forms of currency in the form of coins.
Copper had a much wider usage than gold, as it was harder but still fairly simple to manipulate. The oldest metal weapons and tools were made out of copper.
Lead was easy to extract because it would collect at the bottom of a campfire. Tin was not used directly, it was alloyed with copper to become bronze which was extremely important in the manufacture of ancient weapons. Metals, being stronger than stone, made it possible for primitive people to advance technologically, to create stronger weapons, tools, and more ornate and esthetically pleasing forms of art.[2]
Metals are the substances by which which man has defined himself and have enabled him to take control of his environment as no other creature has.The history of the progress of early man can be clearly traced by observing his ability to gather, refine, improve, shape and mold various metals around the world in different periods of time. Innovations in the uses of these metals set civilizations apart in the creation of valuable ornaments made of precious metals and more importantly tools made of workable metals which created advantages in weaponry, agriculture, transportation and household items. New ways of working with metals eventually ushered in the Industrial Revolution and a host of innovations we take for granted today.
Neolithic man began shaping copper into knives and sickles, replacing those made of stone, around 7000 BC. These tools were lighter, stronger, held an edge better and lasted longer than stone. By 3800 BC the metal was being smelted and cast and demand for it led to the first instance of mining. This early use of copper tools formed the bridge between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age which began some thousand years later. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin which is much stronger than either component in its pure form. Its discovery has been traced to the Middle East but by 1500 BC it could be found all over Europe and China as well. The fact that items of such value could be made relatively compact and lightweight led to increased trade around Eurasia and beyond.
Iron is readily available but its high melting point made it virtually impossible to extract it from ore until hotter furnaces were fashioned in Anatolia around 1500 BC. Crude pig iron was used to fashion tools and household items but it wasn't until the process for creating steel out of iron was discovered around 1100 BC that Bronze weapons were finally replaced by the newer technology. Steel is made by adding additional carbon to the iron during the smelting process, thus creating a much stronger, longer lasting and workable material. The process of casting with iron was developed in China around 500 BC using very high temperatures. Surviving artifacts made using these early steel processes are of incredibly high quality. Armor plating from the Middle Ages shows almost no signs of oxidation many centuries after they were cast. Quantities of iron and steel that could be smelted and refined were traditionally limited by the availibility of large amounts of firewood used to make charcoal. In the 18th Century coke made from coal was found to be a suitable substitute in the steel-making process, paving the way for mass production which formed the core of the Industrial Revolution. Many processes for creating new materials such as aluminum using metal components followed soon thereafter.
More Information on Metallic Advancement through the Ages
AgricultureFor new research, see Maize May Have Fueled Ancient Andean Civilization
Before agriculture, people lived by hunting wild animals and gathering edible plants. When the herds were plentiful and the plants flourishing, life was easy and comfortable. But when the herds migrated to other parts of the world, people had to follow them and often discover a whole new set of plants to supplement their diet.
Intensive food gathering, in which the local inhabitants of a region set up permanent residences and made extensive use of already present plants, seems to have started in the Near East around 9000 - 7000 BCE.[3] The abundance of the harvest from domesticated plants allowed major increases in population. Having all of one's plants and animals in one place allowed the agriculturist to move from random caves and makeshift huts into permanent or semi-permanent villages with homes made from stones or wood. An early example is the Biblical city of Jericho. It started as such a village around 9000 B.C. and has been a settlement of one sort or another ever since.
Notice the "Fertile Crescent" area, in which agriculture flourished in ancient times.
Many of the early civilizations began along major river systems. For example, Egyptians settled along the Nile River, Harappa culture along the Indus River, Chinese Empire along the Huang River and the Mesopotamian Countries along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.[4] The river systems of these areas provided these early civilizations with a consistent source of nutrient-rich soil from the floods, not to mention water for the crops. The soil was like natural fertilizer, bringing new minerals to enrich the crop-depleted soil. Despite having a near-river location, agriculture would not have been able to thrive throughout Mesopotamia without the use of irrigation systems. Irrigation allowed Mesopotamians to live farther away from the river banks and to expand their living situations into a village layout.
In Africa, agriculture supported the cultures of the Mali, Ghana, Nok, Ife and Benin. These cultures predominately grew cereals, oil crops, and vegetables. They also cultivated medicinal plants used in their religious ceremonies.
Multimedia Timeline on Agriculturehttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=02®ion=eus
More Information on the Origins and Growth of Agriculturehttp://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab16
http://schoolscience.rice.edu/duker/garden/gardenhis.html
http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html
http://www.nal.usda.gov/ref/aghist.htm
http://historylink101.com/lessons/farm-city/story-of-farming.htm
What is Metallurgy?Metal production in Ancient Middle East
Metallurgy is the process of working metal into artifacts such as tools and toys. Metallurgy is one of the oldest applied . Its history can be traced back to around 6000 BCE. Of course, its form at that time was primitive, but the shaping of metals became extremely important to many ancient human societies. Metallurgy was used in early societies and greatly benefited their civilization.
More Information on Metallurgy
- Click here for an overview of metallurgy from David K. Jordan, Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego.
- Click here for a map of metal production in the ancient Middle East.
Timeline of Metal Usage [1]
- Gold: c.6000BCE
- Copper: c.4200BCE
- Silver: c.4000BCE
- Lead: c.3500BCE
- Tin: c.1750BCE
- Iron: c.1500BCE
- Mercury: c.750BCE
The above image shows examples of ancient copper tools.
Uses and Importance of Metals
Gold and silver were used mostly in rings, bracelets, and other jewelry. Gold (and silver) are very malleable and could be smelted at relatively low temperatures. This means they can be extracted and worked easily. They are also both quite rare and beautiful and gold specifically is most suitable for onrnamental uses since it is very soft. Gold and silver had intrinsic value and became the first forms of currency in the form of coins.
Copper had a much wider usage than gold, as it was harder but still fairly simple to manipulate. The oldest metal weapons and tools were made out of copper.
Lead was easy to extract because it would collect at the bottom of a campfire. Tin was not used directly, it was alloyed with copper to become bronze which was extremely important in the manufacture of ancient weapons. Metals, being stronger than stone, made it possible for primitive people to advance technologically, to create stronger weapons, tools, and more ornate and esthetically pleasing forms of art.[2]
Metals are the substances by which which man has defined himself and have enabled him to take control of his environment as no other creature has.The history of the progress of early man can be clearly traced by observing his ability to gather, refine, improve, shape and mold various metals around the world in different periods of time. Innovations in the uses of these metals set civilizations apart in the creation of valuable ornaments made of precious metals and more importantly tools made of workable metals which created advantages in weaponry, agriculture, transportation and household items. New ways of working with metals eventually ushered in the Industrial Revolution and a host of innovations we take for granted today.
Neolithic man began shaping copper into knives and sickles, replacing those made of stone, around 7000 BC. These tools were lighter, stronger, held an edge better and lasted longer than stone. By 3800 BC the metal was being smelted and cast and demand for it led to the first instance of mining. This early use of copper tools formed the bridge between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age which began some thousand years later. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin which is much stronger than either component in its pure form. Its discovery has been traced to the Middle East but by 1500 BC it could be found all over Europe and China as well. The fact that items of such value could be made relatively compact and lightweight led to increased trade around Eurasia and beyond.
Iron is readily available but its high melting point made it virtually impossible to extract it from ore until hotter furnaces were fashioned in Anatolia around 1500 BC. Crude pig iron was used to fashion tools and household items but it wasn't until the process for creating steel out of iron was discovered around 1100 BC that Bronze weapons were finally replaced by the newer technology. Steel is made by adding additional carbon to the iron during the smelting process, thus creating a much stronger, longer lasting and workable material. The process of casting with iron was developed in China around 500 BC using very high temperatures. Surviving artifacts made using these early steel processes are of incredibly high quality. Armor plating from the Middle Ages shows almost no signs of oxidation many centuries after they were cast. Quantities of iron and steel that could be smelted and refined were traditionally limited by the availibility of large amounts of firewood used to make charcoal. In the 18th Century coke made from coal was found to be a suitable substitute in the steel-making process, paving the way for mass production which formed the core of the Industrial Revolution. Many processes for creating new materials such as aluminum using metal components followed soon thereafter.
More Information on Metallic Advancement through the Ages
AgricultureFor new research, see Maize May Have Fueled Ancient Andean Civilization
Before agriculture, people lived by hunting wild animals and gathering edible plants. When the herds were plentiful and the plants flourishing, life was easy and comfortable. But when the herds migrated to other parts of the world, people had to follow them and often discover a whole new set of plants to supplement their diet.
Intensive food gathering, in which the local inhabitants of a region set up permanent residences and made extensive use of already present plants, seems to have started in the Near East around 9000 - 7000 BCE.[3] The abundance of the harvest from domesticated plants allowed major increases in population. Having all of one's plants and animals in one place allowed the agriculturist to move from random caves and makeshift huts into permanent or semi-permanent villages with homes made from stones or wood. An early example is the Biblical city of Jericho. It started as such a village around 9000 B.C. and has been a settlement of one sort or another ever since.
Notice the "Fertile Crescent" area, in which agriculture flourished in ancient times.
Many of the early civilizations began along major river systems. For example, Egyptians settled along the Nile River, Harappa culture along the Indus River, Chinese Empire along the Huang River and the Mesopotamian Countries along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.[4] The river systems of these areas provided these early civilizations with a consistent source of nutrient-rich soil from the floods, not to mention water for the crops. The soil was like natural fertilizer, bringing new minerals to enrich the crop-depleted soil. Despite having a near-river location, agriculture would not have been able to thrive throughout Mesopotamia without the use of irrigation systems. Irrigation allowed Mesopotamians to live farther away from the river banks and to expand their living situations into a village layout.
In Africa, agriculture supported the cultures of the Mali, Ghana, Nok, Ife and Benin. These cultures predominately grew cereals, oil crops, and vegetables. They also cultivated medicinal plants used in their religious ceremonies.
Multimedia Timeline on Agriculturehttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=02®ion=eus
More Information on the Origins and Growth of Agriculturehttp://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab16
http://schoolscience.rice.edu/duker/garden/gardenhis.html
http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html
http://www.nal.usda.gov/ref/aghist.htm
http://historylink101.com/lessons/farm-city/story-of-farming.htm
Describe how the invention of agriculture related to settlement, population growth, and the emergence of civilization.
Focus Question: How did agriculture improve settlement and population growth?
Agricultural Revolution, a student learning module from Washington State University.
Mysteries of Catalhoyuk!is a website that allows students to visit a archaeological dig of a 9,000 year-old town in Turkey.
Before the invention of agriculture, homo sapiens were dependent upon hunting gathering for their food and their survival. By 8000 BC, however, this gradually changed and we saw the once dominant hunter gather being supplanted by the invention of agriculture. With this, starts the dawn of the Neolithic Revolution.
The shift from hunter gather to farmer was not one that happened overnight. Many scholars believe it was quite a gradualprocess, and although hard to pinpoint the a specific reason, changes in climate is considered to be instrumental in the shift.
Impact on Settlement
The ability to stay in one place for a longer period of time, in contrast to the nomadic life of a hunter gatherer, allowed for surpluses in food. With the success of crops and reliance on agriculture, the first settlements were created. Domestication of animals, such as dogs, goats, sheep, and pigs.
i. Rise of villages
ii. Population Growth
iii. Civilization
Conclusion: The introduction of agriculture created a surge in innovation and revolutionary techniques that created a more civilized, structured, and modern society. The advancements made in social, economic, and agricultural means during the Neolithic Revolution are for the most part, still prevalent in today's society.
Agricultural Revolution, a student learning module from Washington State University.
Mysteries of Catalhoyuk!is a website that allows students to visit a archaeological dig of a 9,000 year-old town in Turkey.
Before the invention of agriculture, homo sapiens were dependent upon hunting gathering for their food and their survival. By 8000 BC, however, this gradually changed and we saw the once dominant hunter gather being supplanted by the invention of agriculture. With this, starts the dawn of the Neolithic Revolution.
The shift from hunter gather to farmer was not one that happened overnight. Many scholars believe it was quite a gradualprocess, and although hard to pinpoint the a specific reason, changes in climate is considered to be instrumental in the shift.
Impact on Settlement
The ability to stay in one place for a longer period of time, in contrast to the nomadic life of a hunter gatherer, allowed for surpluses in food. With the success of crops and reliance on agriculture, the first settlements were created. Domestication of animals, such as dogs, goats, sheep, and pigs.
i. Rise of villages
- The modern village owes thanks to the Neolithic Revolution. With a sedentary lifestyle, settlements became formed, and this naturally led to the development of villages.
- More sustainable, advanced, permanent homes were built.
- The building of community/ritual centers, better systems of food storage, and more attention to fortification also sprang up
ii. Population Growth
- With a sedentary lifestyle, humans found themselves with a more sustainable lifestyle
- Food was now in surplus
- Population was less exposed to the harshness of nature that hunter gatherers experienced; making survival and life expectancy greater
- Women, unlike where caring for newborns while traveling made large families a rarity, began to expand families at a more rapid rate.
- Population rates began to increase rapidly as a result.
iii. Civilization
- With the rise of villages and permanent settlements, specializations of trade arose.
- skilled professions such as pottery, tool-making, weaving, and carpentry are examples.
- created a powerful hierarchy of merchants, quasi-class system
- skilled professions such as pottery, tool-making, weaving, and carpentry are examples.
- Government structures arose
- ruling class enforced laws, commissioned public works, even imposed a tributary finance system to pay for their endeavors, i.e. taxes
- not everything about the birth of agriculture was good however.
- Women lost significant ground to men in matters of social and economic matters
Conclusion: The introduction of agriculture created a surge in innovation and revolutionary techniques that created a more civilized, structured, and modern society. The advancements made in social, economic, and agricultural means during the Neolithic Revolution are for the most part, still prevalent in today's society.
Identify the characteristics of civilizations.
a. the presence of geographic boundaries and political institutions
b. an economy that produces food surpluses
c. a concentration of population in distinct areas or cities
d. the existence of social classes
e. developed systems of religion, learning, art, and architecture
f. a system of record keeping. (H,G,E)
Focus Question: What key characteristics led to the development of civilizations in the ancient world?
A schematic showing the spreading of humans in history.
Collapse: Why Do Civilizations Fall? an interactive game from Annenberg Media.
Recent research in Peru raises a question that people in Buena Vista, a settlement near of the foothills of the Andes established a society built not only around agriculture, but also fishing. If so, the presence of fishing and farming together would be an exception to a worldwide pattern of how civilizations developed. See "The World's Oldest Calendar?" by Anne Bolen,Smithsonian, May 2007.
The Origins of Civilization from the University of Chicago features teaching lessons about the transition from a way of life based on hunting and gathering to an economy based on raising domesticated plants and animals.
Secrets of Stonehenge from NOVA (November 16, 2010) offers new research on who built these structures and why.
Essential UnderstandingsEarly Civilizations Around the WorldThe ancient city of Caral in Peru on March 30th, 2010
Six basic characteristics of civilization:1) an urban focus
2) a distinct religious structure
3) new political and military structures
4) new social structure
5) development of writing
6) new and significant artistic and intellectual activity (The Essential World History, W. Duiker & J. Spielvogel, Second Edition, 2005, p. 6).
A. Geographic Boundaries
Geographic boundaries provide a set area for people to exist in as a society and also set up areas where certain ethnic groups fit in better than they would in a different area. The boundaries can also be related to landforms in the area because they provide pre-made boundaries. These geographic boundaries can also provide people with some natural protection from other, possibly harmful societies. Geographic boundaries may also provide a society with the necessities for life such as a river or fertile soil. A perfect example of this would be the fertile crescent surrounded by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which allowed for one of the first ancient civilizations to flourish.
Political institutions are formed in areas that have a certain group of people who have the same values and want the same things in life. Having that common bond makes people want to work together and become a community. These political institutions also serve as a form of rule and order in a society. The people belonging to these institutions usually have more power and control over the majority of the population. In theory, these institutions should act with society's best interests in mind.
B. Economics
Economies that produced extra food allowed for trade and the mixing of populations. This also meant people soon realized how to preserve foods and which types of crops to grow when and how. The preservation of food and growing of crops also allowed people to remain settled in one place rather than moving to where the food was. This allowed for cultures to grow and flourish. People no longer had to worry about what to eat next or think about survival. People could begin to explore and question the world in which they lived in. This allowed for societies and cultures to evolve into great civilizations.
C. Mobility of people
People tend to go where the jobs are and the jobs are in areas that have many people and get many different things done. A concentration of people in a distinct area such as a city leads to the blending of different ideas and ways of living. People are forced to cooperate with each other in order to survive together. Many people settling in one place can also create different opportunities for people to trade and master different specialties. This creates jobs and each person has a different talent or specialty. All these different talents come together in the city.
D. Social Classes
Social Classes came to be when people started to see that they were different from the people around them. Some had more land than others which meant they had people working for them. This development of "classes" also created inequality among people. People with more land or "capital" believed they were somehow better than the people with less. The distribution of resources and power became one-sided and many people suffered. Humans naturally have the habit of categorizing the world around them. It allows us to make sense and organize our world. Unfortunately we end up categorizing different people too. We categorize by skin color, personal capital worth, religious beliefs and so on. This leads to certain groups oppressing other groups. Social classes can be found in every modern society today; this is just the way societies have evolved over the many centuries.
E. Religion and Art
Religion started from people worshipping the earth and the "gods" they felt controlled them and the world around them. People developed learning because they want to find out what was happening in the world around them and the many things they could not explain. Religion also offered meaning in peoples lives. It was a convenient way to explain the unknown which surrounded people in ancient civilizations. Whenever things went wrong or disasters occurred people needed and wanted an explanation. Having superior beings to worship helped explain these different phenomena.
The above image is of cave paintings in Lascaux, France.
Art was and still is a way to express yourself and keep records which was something that needed to be done as time went on. Art allowed for creativity and talent to thrive and be shared. Humans could express their feelings, skills, ideas etc. through art. Art has been around since the beginning of the human race. People drew on the walls of caves to tell their stories. Art is also a way for civilizations to express and share their beauty and success of their societies. Art was and still is a way for people to share their opinions about the world or society in which they live. Art can be about people, nature, the unknown, and much more.
Architecture was needed in order to build dwellings and other places where people would gather to work and/or discuss life. Architecture also allowed for civilizations to expand and grow into more advanced and complex societies. Developing the ability to construct buildings and streets allowed for a more modern lifestyle. Architecture has been advancing along with the human race over the centuries. The cities and architecture we have today came from the examples of ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
F. System of Record Keeping (see also Grade 7.10)
"Writing is a virtual necessity to the societies anthropologists call civilizations. . . . A civilization, with its taxation and tribute systems, its trade, and its public works, require a sophisticated system of record keeping. And so the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, Mesoamerica, and (probably) India all developed a system or writing." (The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet. Amalia E. Gnanadesikan, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, p. 1-2).
The Rosetta Stone is an excellent example of early written language.
The picture above is of the Rosetta Stone.The image above shows the linguistic make-up of the Rosetta Stone.
Record keeping allowed for more advanced trade and for other businesses to flourish. Record keeping was generally accomplished in one of two ways: through the use of art or a written language.
Records needed to be kept in order to organize a settlement and make sure that a recorded history was being kept. Record keeping also allowed for more trade and many more businesses to rise. Keeping records allowed people to go back and look at things later on. A system to keep track of things would be needed in order to make this system work. Without records, civilization as we know it today could not exist. Records are a way to keep track of important laws and rules that a society believes in.
Records are kept in all societies. They allow for businesses to be run and for laws to be kept. Without records there would be no organization or rules and no history of prior civilizations.
b. an economy that produces food surpluses
c. a concentration of population in distinct areas or cities
d. the existence of social classes
e. developed systems of religion, learning, art, and architecture
f. a system of record keeping. (H,G,E)
Focus Question: What key characteristics led to the development of civilizations in the ancient world?
A schematic showing the spreading of humans in history.
Collapse: Why Do Civilizations Fall? an interactive game from Annenberg Media.
Recent research in Peru raises a question that people in Buena Vista, a settlement near of the foothills of the Andes established a society built not only around agriculture, but also fishing. If so, the presence of fishing and farming together would be an exception to a worldwide pattern of how civilizations developed. See "The World's Oldest Calendar?" by Anne Bolen,Smithsonian, May 2007.
The Origins of Civilization from the University of Chicago features teaching lessons about the transition from a way of life based on hunting and gathering to an economy based on raising domesticated plants and animals.
Secrets of Stonehenge from NOVA (November 16, 2010) offers new research on who built these structures and why.
Essential UnderstandingsEarly Civilizations Around the WorldThe ancient city of Caral in Peru on March 30th, 2010
- Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (Indus River Valley, India between 3000 and 1500 BCE). SeeWorld HistoryWHI.21 for more on Indian history to 1800.
- Shang Dynasty (Yellow River, China between 1750 and 1122 BCE)
- Caral, Peru (Supe River Valley, around 2600 BCE)
- Central Asia (in present day Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan around 2000 BCE)
Six basic characteristics of civilization:1) an urban focus
2) a distinct religious structure
3) new political and military structures
4) new social structure
5) development of writing
6) new and significant artistic and intellectual activity (The Essential World History, W. Duiker & J. Spielvogel, Second Edition, 2005, p. 6).
A. Geographic Boundaries
Geographic boundaries provide a set area for people to exist in as a society and also set up areas where certain ethnic groups fit in better than they would in a different area. The boundaries can also be related to landforms in the area because they provide pre-made boundaries. These geographic boundaries can also provide people with some natural protection from other, possibly harmful societies. Geographic boundaries may also provide a society with the necessities for life such as a river or fertile soil. A perfect example of this would be the fertile crescent surrounded by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which allowed for one of the first ancient civilizations to flourish.
Political institutions are formed in areas that have a certain group of people who have the same values and want the same things in life. Having that common bond makes people want to work together and become a community. These political institutions also serve as a form of rule and order in a society. The people belonging to these institutions usually have more power and control over the majority of the population. In theory, these institutions should act with society's best interests in mind.
B. Economics
Economies that produced extra food allowed for trade and the mixing of populations. This also meant people soon realized how to preserve foods and which types of crops to grow when and how. The preservation of food and growing of crops also allowed people to remain settled in one place rather than moving to where the food was. This allowed for cultures to grow and flourish. People no longer had to worry about what to eat next or think about survival. People could begin to explore and question the world in which they lived in. This allowed for societies and cultures to evolve into great civilizations.
C. Mobility of people
People tend to go where the jobs are and the jobs are in areas that have many people and get many different things done. A concentration of people in a distinct area such as a city leads to the blending of different ideas and ways of living. People are forced to cooperate with each other in order to survive together. Many people settling in one place can also create different opportunities for people to trade and master different specialties. This creates jobs and each person has a different talent or specialty. All these different talents come together in the city.
D. Social Classes
Social Classes came to be when people started to see that they were different from the people around them. Some had more land than others which meant they had people working for them. This development of "classes" also created inequality among people. People with more land or "capital" believed they were somehow better than the people with less. The distribution of resources and power became one-sided and many people suffered. Humans naturally have the habit of categorizing the world around them. It allows us to make sense and organize our world. Unfortunately we end up categorizing different people too. We categorize by skin color, personal capital worth, religious beliefs and so on. This leads to certain groups oppressing other groups. Social classes can be found in every modern society today; this is just the way societies have evolved over the many centuries.
E. Religion and Art
Religion started from people worshipping the earth and the "gods" they felt controlled them and the world around them. People developed learning because they want to find out what was happening in the world around them and the many things they could not explain. Religion also offered meaning in peoples lives. It was a convenient way to explain the unknown which surrounded people in ancient civilizations. Whenever things went wrong or disasters occurred people needed and wanted an explanation. Having superior beings to worship helped explain these different phenomena.
The above image is of cave paintings in Lascaux, France.
Art was and still is a way to express yourself and keep records which was something that needed to be done as time went on. Art allowed for creativity and talent to thrive and be shared. Humans could express their feelings, skills, ideas etc. through art. Art has been around since the beginning of the human race. People drew on the walls of caves to tell their stories. Art is also a way for civilizations to express and share their beauty and success of their societies. Art was and still is a way for people to share their opinions about the world or society in which they live. Art can be about people, nature, the unknown, and much more.
Architecture was needed in order to build dwellings and other places where people would gather to work and/or discuss life. Architecture also allowed for civilizations to expand and grow into more advanced and complex societies. Developing the ability to construct buildings and streets allowed for a more modern lifestyle. Architecture has been advancing along with the human race over the centuries. The cities and architecture we have today came from the examples of ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
F. System of Record Keeping (see also Grade 7.10)
"Writing is a virtual necessity to the societies anthropologists call civilizations. . . . A civilization, with its taxation and tribute systems, its trade, and its public works, require a sophisticated system of record keeping. And so the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, Mesoamerica, and (probably) India all developed a system or writing." (The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet. Amalia E. Gnanadesikan, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, p. 1-2).
The Rosetta Stone is an excellent example of early written language.
The picture above is of the Rosetta Stone.The image above shows the linguistic make-up of the Rosetta Stone.
Record keeping allowed for more advanced trade and for other businesses to flourish. Record keeping was generally accomplished in one of two ways: through the use of art or a written language.
Records needed to be kept in order to organize a settlement and make sure that a recorded history was being kept. Record keeping also allowed for more trade and many more businesses to rise. Keeping records allowed people to go back and look at things later on. A system to keep track of things would be needed in order to make this system work. Without records, civilization as we know it today could not exist. Records are a way to keep track of important laws and rules that a society believes in.
Records are kept in all societies. They allow for businesses to be run and for laws to be kept. Without records there would be no organization or rules and no history of prior civilizations.
https://resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispaces.com/AncientCivilizations