Ancient Rome, c. 500 BC/BCE-500 AD/CE
On a historical map, identify ancient Rome and trace the extent of the Roman Empire to 500 AD (CE).
The Imperial History of the Middle East, an interactive timeline covering 5,000 years of history.
Roman Empire 200 B.C.
Roman Empire 1 A.D.
Roman Empire 200 A.D.
Roman Empire 500 A.D.
Explain how the geographic location of ancient Rome contributed to the shaping of Roman society and the expansion of its political power in the Mediterranean region and beyond.
Focus Question: How did the geographic location of ancient Rome contribute to the shaping of Roman society and the expansion of its empire?
Territorial Expansion of the Roman World , an interactive timeline from the University of Calgary.
Essential Understandings:
The Migration of Peoples
The Seven Hills of Rome
Among the various peoples who migrated southward across the Alps to the warmer climate and rich lands of Italy were Indo-Europeans, whose language had evolved into Latin.
These Latin-speaking people settled along roughly fifty miles of coastal plains and inland to the mountain range that runs down the Italian peninsula, settling among the hills that are now a part of Rome.
These hills with gentler slopes supported the growth of wheat, whereas steeper slopes supported olive trees, fruit trees and vineyards. Here, animals could be pastured.
In the marshy land along the coast and farther inland, the Romans drained the stagnant pools of water that they found, making the area more habitable by eliminating malarial mosquitoes. By draining the marshland, it became easier to defend the seven settlements, which were vulnerable to attack individually.
Terrain and Water ways (compared with Greece):
Although the Apennines bisected Italy forming a ridge down the middle dividing west from east, they were less rugged than themountain ranges of Greece and did not divide the peninsula into many small isolated communities.
Italy also possessed considerably more productive agricultural land than Greece enabling it to support a large population. Italy has large fertile plains that are ideal for farming. Most important are the Po River valley in the north, the Plain of Latium on which Rome was located, and Campania to the south of Latium. To the east of the Italian peninsula is the Adriatic Sea and to the West the Tyrrhenian Sea, bound by the large islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Sicily lies just west of the "toe" of the boot-shaped Italian peninsula.
Located eighteen miles inland on the Tiber River, Rome had access to the sea yet was far enough inland to be safe from pirates. Built on seven hills, it was easily defended. Because the Tiber could be readily forded, Rome, located near the mouth of the Tiber, became a natural crossing point for north-south traffic in western Italy. The Italian peninsula juts into the Mediterranean, making Italy an important crossroads between the western and eastern ends of the sea.
Trade
The Romans borrowed from and traded with cities in Italy that the Greeks had founded. They also traded with central Europe and with
others along the coast of North Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean, importing a variety of goods in exchange for the iron and bronze
items they made, such as helmets and pails.
Additionally, Rome stood at crossroads of major trade routes and was a major center of trade. It had an urban center, approximately one mile wide and four miles long, with paved streets, impressive buildings, and sewers.
Rome used its power and prestige to regulate relations among various Italian cities. It made alliances and created colonies, giving land
in these colonies to common Romans and other Latins, and to the Latins in these colonies it gave full Roman citizenship. The grant of
land was accepted with the obligation of military service, the colony serving as Rome's keeper of peace in its area.
Rome grew in population, and in manpower by extending citizenship to cities it trusted - to cities with people who wished to identify with Rome and were willing to go to war as Romans.
An interactive map that displays trade routes can be seen here
Roman Roads
The importance of roads cannot be understated. The popular phrase "All roads lead to Rome" is quite accurate.
At one point in its history, Rome had 50,000 miles of roads. This system allowed Romans to easily access the far reaches of their Empire, from Spain to Greece.
By connecting the Italian Peninsula to the rest of the Empire via roads, trade, communication, and military might greatly increased.
Sources:http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch15.htm
http://resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm
http://www.icsd.k12.ny.us/legacy/highschool/socstud/global2_review/ancient_rome.htm
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/romulus_and_remus.htm
http://www.unrv.com/culture/roman-roads.php
Territorial Expansion of the Roman World , an interactive timeline from the University of Calgary.
Essential Understandings:
The Migration of Peoples
The Seven Hills of Rome
Among the various peoples who migrated southward across the Alps to the warmer climate and rich lands of Italy were Indo-Europeans, whose language had evolved into Latin.
These Latin-speaking people settled along roughly fifty miles of coastal plains and inland to the mountain range that runs down the Italian peninsula, settling among the hills that are now a part of Rome.
These hills with gentler slopes supported the growth of wheat, whereas steeper slopes supported olive trees, fruit trees and vineyards. Here, animals could be pastured.
In the marshy land along the coast and farther inland, the Romans drained the stagnant pools of water that they found, making the area more habitable by eliminating malarial mosquitoes. By draining the marshland, it became easier to defend the seven settlements, which were vulnerable to attack individually.
Terrain and Water ways (compared with Greece):
Although the Apennines bisected Italy forming a ridge down the middle dividing west from east, they were less rugged than themountain ranges of Greece and did not divide the peninsula into many small isolated communities.
Italy also possessed considerably more productive agricultural land than Greece enabling it to support a large population. Italy has large fertile plains that are ideal for farming. Most important are the Po River valley in the north, the Plain of Latium on which Rome was located, and Campania to the south of Latium. To the east of the Italian peninsula is the Adriatic Sea and to the West the Tyrrhenian Sea, bound by the large islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Sicily lies just west of the "toe" of the boot-shaped Italian peninsula.
Located eighteen miles inland on the Tiber River, Rome had access to the sea yet was far enough inland to be safe from pirates. Built on seven hills, it was easily defended. Because the Tiber could be readily forded, Rome, located near the mouth of the Tiber, became a natural crossing point for north-south traffic in western Italy. The Italian peninsula juts into the Mediterranean, making Italy an important crossroads between the western and eastern ends of the sea.
Trade
The Romans borrowed from and traded with cities in Italy that the Greeks had founded. They also traded with central Europe and with
others along the coast of North Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean, importing a variety of goods in exchange for the iron and bronze
items they made, such as helmets and pails.
Additionally, Rome stood at crossroads of major trade routes and was a major center of trade. It had an urban center, approximately one mile wide and four miles long, with paved streets, impressive buildings, and sewers.
Rome used its power and prestige to regulate relations among various Italian cities. It made alliances and created colonies, giving land
in these colonies to common Romans and other Latins, and to the Latins in these colonies it gave full Roman citizenship. The grant of
land was accepted with the obligation of military service, the colony serving as Rome's keeper of peace in its area.
Rome grew in population, and in manpower by extending citizenship to cities it trusted - to cities with people who wished to identify with Rome and were willing to go to war as Romans.
An interactive map that displays trade routes can be seen here
Roman Roads
The importance of roads cannot be understated. The popular phrase "All roads lead to Rome" is quite accurate.
At one point in its history, Rome had 50,000 miles of roads. This system allowed Romans to easily access the far reaches of their Empire, from Spain to Greece.
By connecting the Italian Peninsula to the rest of the Empire via roads, trade, communication, and military might greatly increased.
Sources:http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch15.htm
http://resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm
http://www.icsd.k12.ny.us/legacy/highschool/socstud/global2_review/ancient_rome.htm
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/romulus_and_remus.htm
http://www.unrv.com/culture/roman-roads.php
Explain the rise of the Roman Republic and the role of mythical and historical figures in Roman history.
A. Romulus and Remus
B. Hannibal and the Carthaginian Wars
C. Marcus Tullius Cicero
D. Julius Caesar
E. Augustus
F. Hadrian
Focus Question: Who are the mythical and historical figures that were significant in the rise of the Roman Republic?
Essential understandings:
A. Romulus and RemusRomulus and Remus
According to the roman mythology, the founders of Rome were Romulus and Remus.
Romulus and Remus were twin sons of the god Mars and priestess Rhea Silvia, the daughter of king Numitor of Alba Longa. Numitor's brother Amulius deposed Numitor from rule and, to be sure that Romulus and Remus would not be able to dethrone him later in life, he threw them into the River Tiber in a trough. The river was flooding at this time, but the twins made it ashore safely in the trough. A she-wolf found the twins and they drank her milk until a shepherd named Fastulous found them and raised them as his own with his wife.
In adulthood, Romulus and Remus put their grandfather, Numitor, back in power of Alba Longa by killing Amulius. The twins decided to build a city of their own at the location where they had been nursed by the she-wolf. Romulus killed Remus for criticizing the walls being built on the Palatine Hill but continued to build the city, naming it Roma (Rome) in honor of his own name.
See this article on Rhea Silvia to learn more about the mythical mother of Romulus and Remus.
Archaeologists unearth Lupercale, where according to legend the she-wolf nursed Romulus and Remus.
B. Hannibal and the Carthaginian WarsHannibal Barca, 247 BC – 182 BC
Hannibal Barca was the famous General of Carthage who crossed the Alps with his elephants to fight the Romans about 2,200 years ago. Carthage - with its capital near Tunis in modern-day Tunisia, North Africa - was a trading empire that had co-existed with Rome for many centuries. Eventually the two empires clashed in the series of three wars called the Punic Wars .
In the Punic Wars Rome defeated Carthage three times, finally destroying the city and the empire. Hannibal took part in the Second Punic War (218-202 BC). He attacked Saguntum in Spain then invaded Italy; he rampaged through Italy for 16 years, inflicting horrific defeats on the Roman forces. He was never defeated in a major engagement by the Romans in Italy but was gradually bottled up in the south of the country. Rome invaded his north African homeland and he was called to defend it, and at Zama he suffered his first major defeat that ended the Second Punic War. Hannibal was then on the run and traveled through the Middle East, selling his military skills, usually to the opponents of Rome's allies. Finally, Hannibal was trapped (in present-day Turkey) and poisoned himself to avoid capture.
To learn more about Hannibal and the Punic Wars watch this video clip, Hannibal: Monster or Determined Leader?
Map of the Second Punic War======The map traces Hannibal's route, Asdrubal's route, and the Roman's offensives. It also marks the major battles.
==
C. Marcus Tullius CiceroMarcus Tullius CiceroMarcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BC and was murdered on December 7, 43 BC. He was, among other things, an orator, lawyer, politician, and philosopher . He placed politics above philosophical study; he believed the latter was valuable in its own right but was even more valuable as the means to more effective political action. The only periods of his life in which he wrote philosophical works were the times he was forcibly prevented from taking part in politics. His life coincided with the decline and fall of the Roman Republic, and he was an important actor in many of the significant political events of his time.
Click here for selections from Cicero's writing and speeches.
D. Gaius Julius Ceasar
Click here for a timeline and historical background of Ceasar's life from Barbara McManus of The College of New Rochelle.
Click here for The Gallic Wars by Julius Ceasar.
Watch this video clip to find out more information on Caesar's Assasination. Did Caesar have time to utter his famous last words?
According to Duiker and Spielvogel in the sixth edition of World History:
Born July 13 in 100 BCE, Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in Roman history, in particular the transitional period between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. In 60 BCE, Caesar joined a political alliance with Crassus and Pompey, two other influential Romans. This alliance was known as the First Triumvirate. These three used populist tactics to secure a lot of power for themselves within Rome. Caesar became famous for his conquest of Gaul, and his handwritten exploits gained him fame and wealth within the republic. Eventually the First Triumvirate failed and following the death of Crassus, Caesar and Pompey became political rivals. Now it is important to note that any victorious general must first disband his army before crossing the Rubicon river and returning to Rome proper. Caesar, however, refused to disband his troops and decided to cross the Rubicon anyway. This led to open fighting in the streets of war between Caesar's troops and Pompey's troops. Caesar emerged victorious and gained complete control of the Roman government. He officially became a dictator in 47 BCE. Caesar used his power to redistribute land to the poor, increased the size of the senate to 900 members, and instituted the Egyptian solar year calendar (365 days). Its fairly obvious that Caesar made a lot of enemies through his actions. He was assassinated by a group of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus in 44 BCE on the Ides of March (March 15). Caesar's death led to a period of Civil War in Roman history that ended with his great-nephew, Octavius, seizing power. Octavius would become the first Emperor of Rome, Emperor Augustus.
Senators Assassinating Caesar
Map of Caesar's conquest's in red. Arrows show flight of senate after Caesar returns to Rome.
E. Augustus
AugustusAfter the assassination of Julius Caesar, the Roman world was divided between Caesar's heir, Octavian, and his assistant, Antony. At the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE Octavian was able to prove his superiority and defeated Antony's forces, thus ending the Republic. Octavian became the first Roman emperor under the title ofAugustus , and vowed to restore the Republic. Augustus' power went hand in hand with his control of the armed forces.
Augustus' Republic allowed senators to appoint governors to provinces and allowed the emperor to control certain provinces. He had successfully created and implemented a new regime based on imperial policies that kept the traditional values intact. Augustus ruled for 45 years and is known as the first ruler of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Watch this video clip to find out more information on Emperor Augustus's Palace.
F. Hadrian
Hadrian (AD76-138) was a Roman emperor (117-138) who declared an end to the expansion and overextension of the empire and drew it back to the limits established by Augustus. He served with distinction in military campaigns with emperor Trajan on the Danube frontier and became consul several times. When Trajan died in 117, Hadrian Roman Emperor 117A.D.-138A.D.Hadrian was proclaimed emperor by the army and his appointment was then ratified by the Roman Senate.
Hadrian strengthened his position by liberalism toward the people, by support of poor children, and by a considerate attitude toward the Senate. In several extended tours he visited ne arly every Roman province, setting local political, military, and economic affairs in order and strengthening loyalty to Rome. His favorite, Antinoüs, traveled with him; when the youth drowned, Hadrian deified him. In 134-35 the emperor revisited Judea, where he put down a lengthy insurrection of the Jews at a reported cost to them of half a million lives. Hadrian spent the closing years of his life partly in Rome and partly at his palatial villa at Tibur (modern Tivoli). He died at Baiae (modern Baia) on July 10, 138, and was succeeded as emperor by Antoninus Pius.
Click here for a YouTube video on Hadrian's Wall
He established a series of defense fortifications, including the famous Hadrian's Wall, that historically marked the end of Roman territorial expansion. The Roman Empire at the time was repeatedly threatened by revolts of subject peoples and by barbarian invasions. Recognizing the need for consolidation, Hadrian resolved to abandon the outlying provinces.
One of the most cultured of the emperors, he was a patron of virtually all the arts. A highly cultivated man, Hadrian surrounded himself with poets, philosophers, and scholars. He wrote verse and prose in Latin and Greek with notable skill. In Rome his passion for architecture could be seen by the erection of such magnificent buildings as the Athenaeum (an academy for the promotion of learning), the Temple of Venus and Roma, the Pantheon (rebuilt), his massive mausoleum (Castel Sant'Angelo), and, in Athens, many other buildings.
Part of Hadrian's Wall
This map shows the location of Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall in Scotland and Northern England.
Sources:http://www.unrv.com/culture/romulus-and-remus.php
http://www.phoenician.org/hannibal_bust_enhanced-wide.JPG
http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/hannibal.html
http://www.iol.ie/~coolmine/typ/romans/romans6.html
http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cicero.htm
http://languages.lakeheadu.ca/uploads/newsletter/Newsletter-Vol-7/V7HP02.JPG
http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95sep/augustus.html
http://www.hadrians.com/images/graphics/rome/emperors/augustus.jpg
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571874/Hadrian.html
http://weblogs.elearning.ubc.ca/ebbandflow/images/hadrian.jpg
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/01/070126-rome-palatine.html
http://www.fact-index.com/r/rh/rhea_silvia.html
http://www.history.com/topics/hannibal/videos#hannibal-monster-or-determined-leader
http://www.history.com/topics/julius-caesar/videos#julius-caesar
http://news.discovery.com/videos/archaeo-emperors-pad-now-open-to-public.html
B. Hannibal and the Carthaginian Wars
C. Marcus Tullius Cicero
D. Julius Caesar
E. Augustus
F. Hadrian
Focus Question: Who are the mythical and historical figures that were significant in the rise of the Roman Republic?
Essential understandings:
A. Romulus and RemusRomulus and Remus
According to the roman mythology, the founders of Rome were Romulus and Remus.
Romulus and Remus were twin sons of the god Mars and priestess Rhea Silvia, the daughter of king Numitor of Alba Longa. Numitor's brother Amulius deposed Numitor from rule and, to be sure that Romulus and Remus would not be able to dethrone him later in life, he threw them into the River Tiber in a trough. The river was flooding at this time, but the twins made it ashore safely in the trough. A she-wolf found the twins and they drank her milk until a shepherd named Fastulous found them and raised them as his own with his wife.
In adulthood, Romulus and Remus put their grandfather, Numitor, back in power of Alba Longa by killing Amulius. The twins decided to build a city of their own at the location where they had been nursed by the she-wolf. Romulus killed Remus for criticizing the walls being built on the Palatine Hill but continued to build the city, naming it Roma (Rome) in honor of his own name.
See this article on Rhea Silvia to learn more about the mythical mother of Romulus and Remus.
Archaeologists unearth Lupercale, where according to legend the she-wolf nursed Romulus and Remus.
B. Hannibal and the Carthaginian WarsHannibal Barca, 247 BC – 182 BC
Hannibal Barca was the famous General of Carthage who crossed the Alps with his elephants to fight the Romans about 2,200 years ago. Carthage - with its capital near Tunis in modern-day Tunisia, North Africa - was a trading empire that had co-existed with Rome for many centuries. Eventually the two empires clashed in the series of three wars called the Punic Wars .
In the Punic Wars Rome defeated Carthage three times, finally destroying the city and the empire. Hannibal took part in the Second Punic War (218-202 BC). He attacked Saguntum in Spain then invaded Italy; he rampaged through Italy for 16 years, inflicting horrific defeats on the Roman forces. He was never defeated in a major engagement by the Romans in Italy but was gradually bottled up in the south of the country. Rome invaded his north African homeland and he was called to defend it, and at Zama he suffered his first major defeat that ended the Second Punic War. Hannibal was then on the run and traveled through the Middle East, selling his military skills, usually to the opponents of Rome's allies. Finally, Hannibal was trapped (in present-day Turkey) and poisoned himself to avoid capture.
To learn more about Hannibal and the Punic Wars watch this video clip, Hannibal: Monster or Determined Leader?
Map of the Second Punic War======The map traces Hannibal's route, Asdrubal's route, and the Roman's offensives. It also marks the major battles.
==
C. Marcus Tullius CiceroMarcus Tullius CiceroMarcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BC and was murdered on December 7, 43 BC. He was, among other things, an orator, lawyer, politician, and philosopher . He placed politics above philosophical study; he believed the latter was valuable in its own right but was even more valuable as the means to more effective political action. The only periods of his life in which he wrote philosophical works were the times he was forcibly prevented from taking part in politics. His life coincided with the decline and fall of the Roman Republic, and he was an important actor in many of the significant political events of his time.
Click here for selections from Cicero's writing and speeches.
D. Gaius Julius Ceasar
Click here for a timeline and historical background of Ceasar's life from Barbara McManus of The College of New Rochelle.
Click here for The Gallic Wars by Julius Ceasar.
Watch this video clip to find out more information on Caesar's Assasination. Did Caesar have time to utter his famous last words?
According to Duiker and Spielvogel in the sixth edition of World History:
Born July 13 in 100 BCE, Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in Roman history, in particular the transitional period between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. In 60 BCE, Caesar joined a political alliance with Crassus and Pompey, two other influential Romans. This alliance was known as the First Triumvirate. These three used populist tactics to secure a lot of power for themselves within Rome. Caesar became famous for his conquest of Gaul, and his handwritten exploits gained him fame and wealth within the republic. Eventually the First Triumvirate failed and following the death of Crassus, Caesar and Pompey became political rivals. Now it is important to note that any victorious general must first disband his army before crossing the Rubicon river and returning to Rome proper. Caesar, however, refused to disband his troops and decided to cross the Rubicon anyway. This led to open fighting in the streets of war between Caesar's troops and Pompey's troops. Caesar emerged victorious and gained complete control of the Roman government. He officially became a dictator in 47 BCE. Caesar used his power to redistribute land to the poor, increased the size of the senate to 900 members, and instituted the Egyptian solar year calendar (365 days). Its fairly obvious that Caesar made a lot of enemies through his actions. He was assassinated by a group of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus in 44 BCE on the Ides of March (March 15). Caesar's death led to a period of Civil War in Roman history that ended with his great-nephew, Octavius, seizing power. Octavius would become the first Emperor of Rome, Emperor Augustus.
Senators Assassinating Caesar
Map of Caesar's conquest's in red. Arrows show flight of senate after Caesar returns to Rome.
E. Augustus
AugustusAfter the assassination of Julius Caesar, the Roman world was divided between Caesar's heir, Octavian, and his assistant, Antony. At the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE Octavian was able to prove his superiority and defeated Antony's forces, thus ending the Republic. Octavian became the first Roman emperor under the title ofAugustus , and vowed to restore the Republic. Augustus' power went hand in hand with his control of the armed forces.
Augustus' Republic allowed senators to appoint governors to provinces and allowed the emperor to control certain provinces. He had successfully created and implemented a new regime based on imperial policies that kept the traditional values intact. Augustus ruled for 45 years and is known as the first ruler of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Watch this video clip to find out more information on Emperor Augustus's Palace.
F. Hadrian
Hadrian (AD76-138) was a Roman emperor (117-138) who declared an end to the expansion and overextension of the empire and drew it back to the limits established by Augustus. He served with distinction in military campaigns with emperor Trajan on the Danube frontier and became consul several times. When Trajan died in 117, Hadrian Roman Emperor 117A.D.-138A.D.Hadrian was proclaimed emperor by the army and his appointment was then ratified by the Roman Senate.
Hadrian strengthened his position by liberalism toward the people, by support of poor children, and by a considerate attitude toward the Senate. In several extended tours he visited ne arly every Roman province, setting local political, military, and economic affairs in order and strengthening loyalty to Rome. His favorite, Antinoüs, traveled with him; when the youth drowned, Hadrian deified him. In 134-35 the emperor revisited Judea, where he put down a lengthy insurrection of the Jews at a reported cost to them of half a million lives. Hadrian spent the closing years of his life partly in Rome and partly at his palatial villa at Tibur (modern Tivoli). He died at Baiae (modern Baia) on July 10, 138, and was succeeded as emperor by Antoninus Pius.
Click here for a YouTube video on Hadrian's Wall
He established a series of defense fortifications, including the famous Hadrian's Wall, that historically marked the end of Roman territorial expansion. The Roman Empire at the time was repeatedly threatened by revolts of subject peoples and by barbarian invasions. Recognizing the need for consolidation, Hadrian resolved to abandon the outlying provinces.
One of the most cultured of the emperors, he was a patron of virtually all the arts. A highly cultivated man, Hadrian surrounded himself with poets, philosophers, and scholars. He wrote verse and prose in Latin and Greek with notable skill. In Rome his passion for architecture could be seen by the erection of such magnificent buildings as the Athenaeum (an academy for the promotion of learning), the Temple of Venus and Roma, the Pantheon (rebuilt), his massive mausoleum (Castel Sant'Angelo), and, in Athens, many other buildings.
Part of Hadrian's Wall
This map shows the location of Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall in Scotland and Northern England.
Sources:http://www.unrv.com/culture/romulus-and-remus.php
http://www.phoenician.org/hannibal_bust_enhanced-wide.JPG
http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/hannibal.html
http://www.iol.ie/~coolmine/typ/romans/romans6.html
http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cicero.htm
http://languages.lakeheadu.ca/uploads/newsletter/Newsletter-Vol-7/V7HP02.JPG
http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95sep/augustus.html
http://www.hadrians.com/images/graphics/rome/emperors/augustus.jpg
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571874/Hadrian.html
http://weblogs.elearning.ubc.ca/ebbandflow/images/hadrian.jpg
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/01/070126-rome-palatine.html
http://www.fact-index.com/r/rh/rhea_silvia.html
http://www.history.com/topics/hannibal/videos#hannibal-monster-or-determined-leader
http://www.history.com/topics/julius-caesar/videos#julius-caesar
http://news.discovery.com/videos/archaeo-emperors-pad-now-open-to-public.html
Describe the government of the Roman Republic and its contribution to the development of democratic principles, including separation of powers, representative government, and the notion of civic duty.
Focus Question: How did the government of the Roman Republic contribute to the development of modern-day democracy?
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars, Polybius from Book VI, The Histories.
The Roman Oration, Aelius Aristides, 155 AD.
The Catiline Conspiracy as Recorded by Sallust, 63 BCE.
I. Government of the Roman Republic
Click here for "The Fall of the Roman Republic," an account by historian Mary Beard of the transformation fromrepublic to empire from the British Broadcasting Company.Julius Caesar
II. Democratic Principles
Legislative Branch
Judicial Branch
The two leaders of the executive branch, theconsuls, were elected for just one year by the upper class. They supervised the Senate and ordered the Roman army during wars. Other members of the executive branch were the tax collectors, mayors, city police, and other people in positions of power in cities.
The most powerful part of the legislative branch was the Senate. The Senate was a group of about 300 male citizens who owned land. They could tell the consuls how much money they could spend and on what. These men were appointed by the consuls.
The judicial branch had six judges who were elected every two years. They were in charge of deciding punishments that criminals would receive. Their job was similar to the job that judges have today in the United States.
The Roman Forum was the center of the public sphere in Rome. Much of Rome's political process took place here. For an interactive guide to the Roman Forum, click on the image.
Although women were excluded from the political process in Rome, this did not stop them from attempting to exert influence. In 42 B.C. the Roman Senate proposed to levy a tax on wealthy women to help fund the military. The women and their families protested, and Hortensia, the daughter of a famous orator, spoke out in the Roman Forum against taxation without representation. She was the first woman known to ever give a public speech in the Forum. Click here for a lesson plan about the incident, which includes an excerpt of Hortensia's speech.
III. Influence
FEDERAL
US Capitol Building
EXECUTIVE
White House
Enforces the law
WHITE HOUSE
PRESIDENT - VICE-PRESIDENT
elected for four years
CABINET
Secretaries - Heads of most important government departments
JUDICIAL BRANCH
The makers of the constitution made sure that each branch of government could control the other branches. For example, the President can "check" Congress by vetoing, or rejecting laws it passes. On the other hand, Congress remove the president if enough members feel that he or she has violated the law. Thus, both are kept in balance Retrieved February 14, 2007, from US Government Branches Web site: http://www.ac-orleans-tours.fr/hist-geo3/sec-euro/Sec-Euro-2nde/american-revolution/federal3.htm
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars, Polybius from Book VI, The Histories.
The Roman Oration, Aelius Aristides, 155 AD.
The Catiline Conspiracy as Recorded by Sallust, 63 BCE.
I. Government of the Roman Republic
Click here for "The Fall of the Roman Republic," an account by historian Mary Beard of the transformation fromrepublic to empire from the British Broadcasting Company.Julius Caesar
- The First Triumvirate: “The First Triumvirate, consisting of Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, came to power in 59 BC when Caesar was elected consul. The Triumvirate reform program was enacted and Caesar got himself appointed governor of Illycrium and Gaul. The way to power in Rome was through military conquest; this gave the general a loyal army, wealth (from the conquered), and popularity and prestige at home. So the governorship of Illycrium and Gaul allowed Caesar to become the general and conqueror he so desperately desired to become.” Quoted from Rome: Julius Caesar from Richard Hooker's World Civilizations website.
- Monarchy: As the Roman empire moved to a monarchy the people still had their freedoms but there would be one person who ruled and decided what was best for everyone. Until Augustus the religion and state were separate but in a different way than what we think of today. When Julius Caesar died he was made a Roman “god”.
- Roman Government Setup The diagram below shows the ladder of political advancement (cursus honorum) during the late Republic. The straight ladder shows the typical path of advancement (theoretically open to all freeborn male citizens), beginning with election to quaestor, the lowest office, and proceeding to consul, the highest (of course very few men made it that far; it was quite exceptional when a man like Cicero, who did not come from a noble family, was elected consul). Red text designates “curule magistrates,” who had the right to sit on a special ivory folding stool (sella curulis) as a symbol of their office; they also had the right to wear the purple-bordered toga (toga praetexta). Offices marked with an asterisk carried imperium, the highest political authority, which included the right to command an army, to interpret and carry out the law, and to pass sentences of death. Magistrates whose title began with “pro” were in charge of provinces; the Senate normally conferred these after the men had finished their term of office in Rome. The more important provinces, especially those requiring large military forces, were assigned to ex-consuls, while the less significant provinces were governed by ex-praetors. Most of these offices remained in place throughout the empire, though their functions changed. Most significantly,imperium was now reserved for the emperor, and advancement in rank proceeded in orderly stages based on conditions laid down by the emperors rather than through competitive electioneering. Thus the cursus honorum changed from a ladder of power (with important social status attached) to a ladder of primarily social rank and status. The cursus honorum was, of course, reserved for men. During the entire period of Roman history women were prohibited from holding political office, though in the empire their roles as mothers, wives, and daughters of emperors gave a few women very high social status and even a kind of indirect rank. Even elite women who were not members of the imperial family sometimes claimed the rank of their fathers or husbands (e.g., as consulares feminae, “consular women”).
II. Democratic Principles
- Separation of powers: Within the system of government, the Roman republic had its own system of checks and balances. The Senate nominated people to the office of censor and they could approve or disapprove any decisions made.Since the Romans did not want one man to make all of the laws, they decided to balance the power of the government etween three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch. The following table will tell you what each branch of the Roman government did.
Legislative Branch
Judicial Branch
The two leaders of the executive branch, theconsuls, were elected for just one year by the upper class. They supervised the Senate and ordered the Roman army during wars. Other members of the executive branch were the tax collectors, mayors, city police, and other people in positions of power in cities.
The most powerful part of the legislative branch was the Senate. The Senate was a group of about 300 male citizens who owned land. They could tell the consuls how much money they could spend and on what. These men were appointed by the consuls.
The judicial branch had six judges who were elected every two years. They were in charge of deciding punishments that criminals would receive. Their job was similar to the job that judges have today in the United States.
The Roman Forum was the center of the public sphere in Rome. Much of Rome's political process took place here. For an interactive guide to the Roman Forum, click on the image.
- Representative government structure: the government of the Roman Republic was first a republic and representative form of government until Julius Caesar changed it to a monarchy form of government with one ruler.
- Civic duties: People felt it was their civic duty to vote ( men at least, since women couldn’t vote or hold any power). They felt it was an honor and duty to serve in the Roman army.
Although women were excluded from the political process in Rome, this did not stop them from attempting to exert influence. In 42 B.C. the Roman Senate proposed to levy a tax on wealthy women to help fund the military. The women and their families protested, and Hortensia, the daughter of a famous orator, spoke out in the Roman Forum against taxation without representation. She was the first woman known to ever give a public speech in the Forum. Click here for a lesson plan about the incident, which includes an excerpt of Hortensia's speech.
III. Influence
- The United States Government follows a similar setup.
FEDERAL
US Capitol Building
EXECUTIVE
White House
Enforces the law
WHITE HOUSE
PRESIDENT - VICE-PRESIDENT
elected for four years
CABINET
Secretaries - Heads of most important government departments
JUDICIAL BRANCH
The makers of the constitution made sure that each branch of government could control the other branches. For example, the President can "check" Congress by vetoing, or rejecting laws it passes. On the other hand, Congress remove the president if enough members feel that he or she has violated the law. Thus, both are kept in balance Retrieved February 14, 2007, from US Government Branches Web site: http://www.ac-orleans-tours.fr/hist-geo3/sec-euro/Sec-Euro-2nde/american-revolution/federal3.htm
Describe the influence of Julius Caesar and Augustus in Rome's transition from a republic to an empire and explain the reasons for the growth and long life of the Roman Empire.
A. Military organization, tactics, and conquests; and decentralized administration
B. the purpose and function of taxes
C. the promotion of economic growth through the use of a standard currency, road construction, and the protection of trade routes
D. the benefits of Pax Romana
Focus Question: How did Rome go from a republic to an empire and what forces sustained the empire over time?
Bust of Julius Caesar from the British Museum Source: George Willis Botsford, A History of Rome, McMillan, 1921Roman Empire Timeline
Go to Roman Emperors for images and a timeline of rulers from Caesar (44 BCE) to Justinian (527-565 CE).
A. Military organization, tactics and conquests; and decentralized administration
Military Organization: TheRoman Legion was generally comprised of between 4,000-6,000 men in various levels of infantry, with 4,200 apparently being the optimal number. For more information on military tactics, scroll down to additional information below.
The Roman Empire under Augustus Caesar (31 BC - AD 6)
C. The promotion of economic growth through the use of a standard currency, road construction, and the protection of trade routes
This period is the beginning of the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, although the name is a bit misleading. The Romans continued to expand their empire during this period, and they did not always do so peacefully. Things were not always peaceful in the city of Rome. Rome did not always have the best leadership. Some emperors were very cruel. Some were insane. But the empire continued to be stable. For some 200 years, the Roman Empire was united.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONMilitary Tactics of the Roman LegionUnder this system the Legion was made of the Maniple formation, which generally consisted of 2 centuries of men. The centuries were organized as a base unit of 60 men, but these numbers fluctuated depending upon the type of infantry. Each century of the Maniple was under the command of a centurion (with the unit on the right under the command of the senior centurion) who was assisted by an optio, and other 'enlisted officers' as detailed in the Imperial system. The cavalry of the Republican legion was limited to a rather small force by comparison to the infantry. The 200-300 man cavalry wings were organized in decuriae of 10 men each under the command of a decurion. Three units of decuriae were organized together as a turma consisting of 30 men, and the senior decurion of the three had total command.
During the republic, the general who recruited an army often armed and paid the soldiers. Augustus wanted to ensure that in the future no rebellious general could threaten the regime, so he established a central military treasury. He set funds aside for the legionaries. When they retired, they received a grant to purchase a plot of land to support their families. Augustus also tried to make his troops more professional by instituting a standard legionary command structure, system of rank, and rate of pay. Roman soldiers swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor. These legionaries also received their pay, bonuses, and pensions from the emperor, so they were not often tempted to follow a renegade commander. Once Augustus had defeated Mark Antony, he began to reduce the empire’s remaining military forces from 60 legions to 28. He then had to provide land for over 100,000 men, which was the traditional form of pension. Augustus knew that earlier seizures of land had led to insurrections, so he used the spoils of his successful Egyptian campaign against Antony and Cleopatra to purchase property for some soldiers. He settled others in 40 new colonies around the Mediterranean. These colonies provided additional security in the provinces, and eventually became important centers for spreading the Roman way of life. Augustus founded the cities of Turin (Italy), Barcelona (Spain), Nimes (France), Tries (Germany), Tangier (Morocco) and Beruit (Lebanon).
Roman RoadsRoman roads vary from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The builders aimed at directional straightness. Many long sections are ruler-straight, but it should not be thought that all of them were. The Roman emphasis on constructing straight roads often resulted in steep grades relatively impractical for most economic traffic: over the years the Romans themselves realized it and built longer, but more manageable, alternatives to existing roads. A milestone, or miliarium, was a circular column on a solid rectangular base, set two feet into the ground, standing several feet high, 20" in diameter, weighing about 2 tons. At the base was inscribed the number of the mile relative to the road it was on. In a panel at eye-height was the distance to the forum at Rome and various other information about the officials who made or repaired the road and when. The Roman roads were essential for the growth of their empire, by enabling them to move armies speedily and by sustaining land transport for Roman mercantilism. Roman roads were designed that way to hinder provinces organizing resistance against the Empire.Trade in the Roman EmpireThe most important port was Ostia as it was the nearest major port to Rome itself. Ostia was situated at the mouth of the River Tiber and was only 15 miles from Rome. Many ships traveled between Ostia and the major North African city of Carthage, a journey that took between three and five days. Ships also arrived from Spain and France at Ostia. All their goods could be quickly moved to Rome itself as they were taken in barges to the city up the River Tiber after slaves had transferred the products from the merchant ships to the barges. Ironically, Ostia was to play a major part in the downfall of Rome when Alaric the Goth captured Ostia in AD 409 knowing that this would starve Rome of much needed food. The Romans did what they could to make sea journeys safe - lighthouses were built as were safe harbors and docks. The Roman Navy did what it could to make the Mediterranean Sea safe from pirates. The Romans made trade as easy as possible. There was only one currency used and there were no complicating customs dues. Trade was also encouraged by many years of peace within the Empire. Trade was vital to the success of the Empire. When the Empire collapsed, trade throughout the lands that had once made up the Roman Empire, also collapsed. The Mediterranean Sea became a dangerous place for merchants as there were no powers to control the activities of pirates who marauded as far north as the English Channel.
Sources:
http://www.unrv.com/military/organization-roman-republican-legion.php
http://www.roman-empire.net/army/tactics.html
http://www.richeast.org/htwm/Greeks/Romans/weapons/weapons.html
http://www.austincelts.org/festival/images/romans.jpg
http://www.legionsix.org/contact1.jpg
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741502785_3/Roman_Empire.html
http://www.crystalinks.com/romeroads.html
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancient_rome_and_trade.htm
http://transportarchaeology.files.wordpress.com/2006/10/via-amerina_falerii-novi_stort_tilblog.jpg
http://artemis.austincollege.edu/acad/history/jmoore/RomanTradeRoutesMap.jpeg
http://rome.mrdonn.org/paxromana.html
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wenceslas_Hollar_-_A_testudo.jpg
B. the purpose and function of taxes
C. the promotion of economic growth through the use of a standard currency, road construction, and the protection of trade routes
D. the benefits of Pax Romana
Focus Question: How did Rome go from a republic to an empire and what forces sustained the empire over time?
Bust of Julius Caesar from the British Museum Source: George Willis Botsford, A History of Rome, McMillan, 1921Roman Empire Timeline
Go to Roman Emperors for images and a timeline of rulers from Caesar (44 BCE) to Justinian (527-565 CE).
A. Military organization, tactics and conquests; and decentralized administration
Military Organization: TheRoman Legion was generally comprised of between 4,000-6,000 men in various levels of infantry, with 4,200 apparently being the optimal number. For more information on military tactics, scroll down to additional information below.
The Roman Empire under Augustus Caesar (31 BC - AD 6)
- Decentralized Administration: Rome was ruled during this era as a decentralized administration. Decentralized administrations cannot rely on force or a central authority. The senate was filled by patricians (the elite members of society), and consisted of 300 seats. Roman citizens were given more control of their own property as well, which allowed for more freedom within the empire.
- Taxes: The Roman Empire taxed the people under its control, and the taxes fell most heavily on conquered peoples in the empire. Roman citizens did not have to pay the individual or head tax required of each subject of the empire, and the empire exempted Italian land from tribute. Roman citizens did, however, have to pay the 5 percent inheritance tax, a 1 percent sales tax, a customs or import duty, and a tax on freed slaves. Local magistrates, imperial officials, and professional tax collectors were all employed to gather taxes, and the imperial census became an important tool to identify potential taxpayers. Total taxes amounted to about 10 percent of the empire’s gross national product. That percentage of tax may seem low by modern standards, but the imperial government provided minimal services. For provincials who could barely make a living, paying 10 percent of their income to the government was a considerable burden.
- Social Order: The social order in the Roman Empire played a critical role in the political and economic structure. The social order was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and freedom.
C. The promotion of economic growth through the use of a standard currency, road construction, and the protection of trade routes
- Standard Currency: Merchants throughout the empire and as far away as India used Roman coins, but the monetary system primarily served as a way for the emperors to pay their troops, because the soldiers expected cash. When an emperor had insufficient income, he was forced to raise taxes, seize property, or, as a final measure, melt down existing coins and mint new ones that weighed less or contained smaller amounts of precious metals. Silver coins were a basic medium of exchange during the empire, and one of the major Roman coins, a denarius (plural, denarii), equaled four of the smaller silver coins called sesterces. During the reign of Augustus, a silver denarius weighed 5.7 gm (.20 oz) and was 99 percent pure. By AD 193 it had dropped to 4.3 gm (.15 oz) and was only 70 percent pure. The deficit spending of later emperors nearly halved the silver value of the coinage.
- Road Construction: "All roads lead to Rome"... The Romans, for military, commercial and political reasons, became adept at constructing roads, which they called 'viae' (plural of singular via). It means "to go" with the sense of transporting in a vehicle. Viae were always intended primarily as carriage roads, the means of carrying material from one location to another. At its peak, the Roman road system spanned 53,000 miles and contained about 372 links. There is more on Roman roads at the bottom of the page.
- Protection of trade routes: Trade was vital to Ancient Rome. The empire cost a vast sum of money to run and trade brought in much of that money. The population of the city of Rome was one million and such a vast population required all manner of things brought back via trade. The Roman Empire was criss-crossed with trade routes. There were sea routes that covered the Mediterranean and Black Seas and numerous land routes using the roads built by the Romans. Trade and moving the Roman Army around were the two principle reasons for building roads. For more on trade routes, see the bottom of the page.
This period is the beginning of the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, although the name is a bit misleading. The Romans continued to expand their empire during this period, and they did not always do so peacefully. Things were not always peaceful in the city of Rome. Rome did not always have the best leadership. Some emperors were very cruel. Some were insane. But the empire continued to be stable. For some 200 years, the Roman Empire was united.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONMilitary Tactics of the Roman LegionUnder this system the Legion was made of the Maniple formation, which generally consisted of 2 centuries of men. The centuries were organized as a base unit of 60 men, but these numbers fluctuated depending upon the type of infantry. Each century of the Maniple was under the command of a centurion (with the unit on the right under the command of the senior centurion) who was assisted by an optio, and other 'enlisted officers' as detailed in the Imperial system. The cavalry of the Republican legion was limited to a rather small force by comparison to the infantry. The 200-300 man cavalry wings were organized in decuriae of 10 men each under the command of a decurion. Three units of decuriae were organized together as a turma consisting of 30 men, and the senior decurion of the three had total command.
- Tactics and Conquests:
- Shield to Shield: In battle, the Roman soldiers would stand with the shields in front side by side, and in the rows behind, with the shields on top of the heads of the ones in front. It is called the testudo formation. It made an advancing group of Romans a giant tortoise, and less vulnerable to artillery fire.
- Battle Readiness: During a fierce battle, a soldier can get easily get tired. The Romans solved this. A soldier would only be at the front of a fighting column for fifteen minutes, then move to the back. This was invaluable to the soldiers.
- Starvation: Starving a town under siege into submission was a favorite of the Romans. The town would be surrounded, plastered with artillery, and then the Romans would wait for the supplies to run out. In the event that this tactic took too long, siege towers were built. These allowed the Roman soldiers to scale the walls of a town easily. Together the two tactics were excessively effective.
- Training: Training was the most important tactic to the Roman Army. The Romans were trained to fight hard and to improvise. Every soldier was trained like an engineer: they could make anything out of anything.
During the republic, the general who recruited an army often armed and paid the soldiers. Augustus wanted to ensure that in the future no rebellious general could threaten the regime, so he established a central military treasury. He set funds aside for the legionaries. When they retired, they received a grant to purchase a plot of land to support their families. Augustus also tried to make his troops more professional by instituting a standard legionary command structure, system of rank, and rate of pay. Roman soldiers swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor. These legionaries also received their pay, bonuses, and pensions from the emperor, so they were not often tempted to follow a renegade commander. Once Augustus had defeated Mark Antony, he began to reduce the empire’s remaining military forces from 60 legions to 28. He then had to provide land for over 100,000 men, which was the traditional form of pension. Augustus knew that earlier seizures of land had led to insurrections, so he used the spoils of his successful Egyptian campaign against Antony and Cleopatra to purchase property for some soldiers. He settled others in 40 new colonies around the Mediterranean. These colonies provided additional security in the provinces, and eventually became important centers for spreading the Roman way of life. Augustus founded the cities of Turin (Italy), Barcelona (Spain), Nimes (France), Tries (Germany), Tangier (Morocco) and Beruit (Lebanon).
Roman RoadsRoman roads vary from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The builders aimed at directional straightness. Many long sections are ruler-straight, but it should not be thought that all of them were. The Roman emphasis on constructing straight roads often resulted in steep grades relatively impractical for most economic traffic: over the years the Romans themselves realized it and built longer, but more manageable, alternatives to existing roads. A milestone, or miliarium, was a circular column on a solid rectangular base, set two feet into the ground, standing several feet high, 20" in diameter, weighing about 2 tons. At the base was inscribed the number of the mile relative to the road it was on. In a panel at eye-height was the distance to the forum at Rome and various other information about the officials who made or repaired the road and when. The Roman roads were essential for the growth of their empire, by enabling them to move armies speedily and by sustaining land transport for Roman mercantilism. Roman roads were designed that way to hinder provinces organizing resistance against the Empire.Trade in the Roman EmpireThe most important port was Ostia as it was the nearest major port to Rome itself. Ostia was situated at the mouth of the River Tiber and was only 15 miles from Rome. Many ships traveled between Ostia and the major North African city of Carthage, a journey that took between three and five days. Ships also arrived from Spain and France at Ostia. All their goods could be quickly moved to Rome itself as they were taken in barges to the city up the River Tiber after slaves had transferred the products from the merchant ships to the barges. Ironically, Ostia was to play a major part in the downfall of Rome when Alaric the Goth captured Ostia in AD 409 knowing that this would starve Rome of much needed food. The Romans did what they could to make sea journeys safe - lighthouses were built as were safe harbors and docks. The Roman Navy did what it could to make the Mediterranean Sea safe from pirates. The Romans made trade as easy as possible. There was only one currency used and there were no complicating customs dues. Trade was also encouraged by many years of peace within the Empire. Trade was vital to the success of the Empire. When the Empire collapsed, trade throughout the lands that had once made up the Roman Empire, also collapsed. The Mediterranean Sea became a dangerous place for merchants as there were no powers to control the activities of pirates who marauded as far north as the English Channel.
Sources:
http://www.unrv.com/military/organization-roman-republican-legion.php
http://www.roman-empire.net/army/tactics.html
http://www.richeast.org/htwm/Greeks/Romans/weapons/weapons.html
http://www.austincelts.org/festival/images/romans.jpg
http://www.legionsix.org/contact1.jpg
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741502785_3/Roman_Empire.html
http://www.crystalinks.com/romeroads.html
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancient_rome_and_trade.htm
http://transportarchaeology.files.wordpress.com/2006/10/via-amerina_falerii-novi_stort_tilblog.jpg
http://artemis.austincollege.edu/acad/history/jmoore/RomanTradeRoutesMap.jpeg
http://rome.mrdonn.org/paxromana.html
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wenceslas_Hollar_-_A_testudo.jpg
Describe the characteristics of slavery under the Romans
Focus Question: How widespread was slavery in the Roman Empire?Reconstruction of Roman woman with polished metal mirror and slave. Photo on Wikimedia Commons by Linda Spashett
Though slavery was a widespread institution throughout the ancient world, ancient Rome was the most reliant on slave labor and had the most slaves among its population.
Slavery under the Romans was slowly replaced with new economic force during the late empire-- wage workers who provided cheap labor without initial cost that salve owners had to pay for slaves. Slavery did not disappear in Rome because of human reform or religious principle (Need citation).
Women and Slavery in Ancient Rome
Focus Question: What roles did slaves play in ancient Roman society?
Slaves served a number of functions. The institution of slavery impacted all areas of life in ancient Rome.
Slavery under the Romans was slowly replaced with new economic force during the late empire-- wage workers who provided cheap labor without initial cost that salve owners had to pay for slaves. Slavery did not disappear in Rome because of human reform or religious principle (Need citation).
Focus Question: How were slaves treated in ancient Rome?A slave brings to his master the tablets to write. Photo of artifact in the # # English: Archaeological Museum in Milan, Italy
Though some masters claimed to treat their slaves humanely, this was the exception to the rule. Slaves were subjected to severe punishments, torture, abuse, and deplorable working condition. Masters often sexually abused their female slaves. There were strict laws that prohibited Roman citizens from hiding escaped slaves. There are reports of slaves revolting against their owners—an occurrence that sometimes resulted in the owner’s murder. When slaves were executed by crucifixion when they were sentenced to punishment by death (Duiker, W.J. & Spielvogel, J.J. (2009). Essential World History Volume I (Enhanced 3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth).
Roman owners sometimes freed their slaves-- either outright or by allowing them to purchase their freedom. This possibility served as an incentive to be obedient and hard working. However, slaves who received their freedom in such an informal way did not become citizens, and any property they had amassed was given over to their former owners when the manumitted slaves died. Formal manumission (granting of freedom) was performed by a magistrate. Freed slaves were entitled to full Roman citizenship, the only exception being that they were not allowed to hold government office. Just as enslavement was inherited, the granting of formal manumission also freed former-slaves' children (Public Broadcasting Service. (2006). The Roman Empire in the First Century: Slaves and Freemen. Retrieved February 7, 2010 fromhttp://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/slaves_freemen.html).
Focus Question: Did slaves resist the institution of slavery in ancient Rome?
Toward the end of the 2nd century BCE, there were large-scale slave revolts in Sicily. The most famous uprising occurred from 73-31 BCE, led by a gladiator named Spartacus. Seventy thousand slaves joined the revolt, which defeated numerous Roman armies before Spartacus was captured and killed in 71 BCE. Six thousand of his followers were crucified as punishment (Duiker, W.J. & Spielvogel, J.J. (2009)Essential World History Volume I (Enhanced 3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth).
Websites:
Primary Sources: "The Roman Empire in the First Century"- Lesson Plan with links to primary sources. Hosted by PBS. (http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html )
Multimedia Resources: "The Roman Empire in the First Century: Slaves, the Labor Force, and the Economy"- Videos on "Urban Life" (http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/vid/urban.html ) and "Seneca's Lessons" (http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/vid/seneca.html )
Multicultural Resources: "Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome"- Article by Keith Bradley (http://bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_01.shmtl )
Women's History Resources: "Roman Women: Following the Clues"- Article by Suzanne Dixon (http://bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/roman_women_01.shtml )
Additional Information (needing further citations)
As Roman law was inconsistent on slavery, the master had power over each slave, including the option to kill them. Slaves did not have any rights and they were considered as property. There were also people whose jobs it was to torture slaves called thecarnefices. They would impose punishments such as ripping off the fingernails of the slaves and also by crushing their hands with weighty objects (Need citation).
Some masters were very kind to their slaves, offering them rewards for loyal service. Some slave-holders treated their slaves vary humanely, as Pliny writes about his slaves:
"I am very upset by the illness among my slaves. Some of them have actually died, including even younger men. In cases like this I find comfort in two thoughts. I am always ready to give my slaves their freedom, so I don’t think their deaths so untimely if they die free men. I also permit my slaves to make a “will,” which I consider legally binding."
Pliny, Letters VIII.16 (Need citation)
Other slave-holders were not as humane in their relations with their slaves. Cato gives this advice to Romans about slaves and agriculture:
"Let the farmer sell olive oil, if he has a good price, also his wine and his grain. Let him sell his surplus too: old oxen, an old plow, an old slave, a sick slave."
Cato, On Agriculture 2.3 (extracts)
(Need citation)
Slaves were keenly aware of their inferior positions and by way of protest sometimes tried to run away. Escaped slaves, when re-captured were branded the letters FUG (fugitīvus, runaway) on their foreheads.
(Need citation)
Sources
1. Answers Corporation, (2007). Answers.com. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Answers.com Web site:http://www.answers.com/topic/slavery-in-ancient-rome
2. Lyn , Mclean (Ed.). (1995). Ecce Romani, A Latin Reading Program. London: Longman Group Ltd.
3. Crystal, Ellie (2007). Slavery in Ancient Rome. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Ancient Rome Web site:http://www.crystalinks.com/romeslavery.html
4. Mirza, Smair and Tsang, Jason (2006). Slavery. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Rome Exposed Web site:http://www.classicsunveiled.com/romel/html/slavery.html
Though slavery was a widespread institution throughout the ancient world, ancient Rome was the most reliant on slave labor and had the most slaves among its population.
- Estimates of the percentage of the ancient Roman population that was enslaved vary, but many sources estimate that between one-fifth and one-third of the population.
- Unlike the trans-Atlantic slave trade many centuries later, Roman slavery was not based on race.
- Roman slaves included prisoners of war, sailors who were captured by pirates, and slaves purchased outside Roman territory.
- Additionally, impoverished Roman citizens sometimes sold their children into slavery to make money (Public Broadcasting Service. (2006). The Roman Empire in the First Century: Slaves and Freemen. Retrieved February 7, 2010 fromhttp://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/slaves_freemen.html).
Slavery under the Romans was slowly replaced with new economic force during the late empire-- wage workers who provided cheap labor without initial cost that salve owners had to pay for slaves. Slavery did not disappear in Rome because of human reform or religious principle (Need citation).
Women and Slavery in Ancient Rome
Focus Question: What roles did slaves play in ancient Roman society?
Slaves served a number of functions. The institution of slavery impacted all areas of life in ancient Rome.
- Slave were status symbols for the wealthy
- Slaves were forced to do manual labor (e.g. farming) in horrible working conditions
- Slaves were forced to do household labor as cooks, waiters, cleaners, and gardeners
- Slaves were forced to work on public works projects such as the construction of buildings and aqueducts.
- Slaves were also forced to be gladiators, and participate in ritualized public violence in which men and women literally fought their deaths for the entertainment of spectators (Public Broadcasting Service. (2006). The Roman Empire in the First Century: Gladiators. Retrieved February 7, 2010 from http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/gladiators.html).
- Greek slaves were used as tutors, musicians, doctors, artists, and shopkeepers.
Slavery under the Romans was slowly replaced with new economic force during the late empire-- wage workers who provided cheap labor without initial cost that salve owners had to pay for slaves. Slavery did not disappear in Rome because of human reform or religious principle (Need citation).
Focus Question: How were slaves treated in ancient Rome?A slave brings to his master the tablets to write. Photo of artifact in the # # English: Archaeological Museum in Milan, Italy
Though some masters claimed to treat their slaves humanely, this was the exception to the rule. Slaves were subjected to severe punishments, torture, abuse, and deplorable working condition. Masters often sexually abused their female slaves. There were strict laws that prohibited Roman citizens from hiding escaped slaves. There are reports of slaves revolting against their owners—an occurrence that sometimes resulted in the owner’s murder. When slaves were executed by crucifixion when they were sentenced to punishment by death (Duiker, W.J. & Spielvogel, J.J. (2009). Essential World History Volume I (Enhanced 3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth).
Roman owners sometimes freed their slaves-- either outright or by allowing them to purchase their freedom. This possibility served as an incentive to be obedient and hard working. However, slaves who received their freedom in such an informal way did not become citizens, and any property they had amassed was given over to their former owners when the manumitted slaves died. Formal manumission (granting of freedom) was performed by a magistrate. Freed slaves were entitled to full Roman citizenship, the only exception being that they were not allowed to hold government office. Just as enslavement was inherited, the granting of formal manumission also freed former-slaves' children (Public Broadcasting Service. (2006). The Roman Empire in the First Century: Slaves and Freemen. Retrieved February 7, 2010 fromhttp://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/slaves_freemen.html).
Focus Question: Did slaves resist the institution of slavery in ancient Rome?
Toward the end of the 2nd century BCE, there were large-scale slave revolts in Sicily. The most famous uprising occurred from 73-31 BCE, led by a gladiator named Spartacus. Seventy thousand slaves joined the revolt, which defeated numerous Roman armies before Spartacus was captured and killed in 71 BCE. Six thousand of his followers were crucified as punishment (Duiker, W.J. & Spielvogel, J.J. (2009)Essential World History Volume I (Enhanced 3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth).
Websites:
Primary Sources: "The Roman Empire in the First Century"- Lesson Plan with links to primary sources. Hosted by PBS. (http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html )
Multimedia Resources: "The Roman Empire in the First Century: Slaves, the Labor Force, and the Economy"- Videos on "Urban Life" (http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/vid/urban.html ) and "Seneca's Lessons" (http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/vid/seneca.html )
Multicultural Resources: "Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome"- Article by Keith Bradley (http://bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_01.shmtl )
Women's History Resources: "Roman Women: Following the Clues"- Article by Suzanne Dixon (http://bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/roman_women_01.shtml )
Additional Information (needing further citations)
As Roman law was inconsistent on slavery, the master had power over each slave, including the option to kill them. Slaves did not have any rights and they were considered as property. There were also people whose jobs it was to torture slaves called thecarnefices. They would impose punishments such as ripping off the fingernails of the slaves and also by crushing their hands with weighty objects (Need citation).
Some masters were very kind to their slaves, offering them rewards for loyal service. Some slave-holders treated their slaves vary humanely, as Pliny writes about his slaves:
"I am very upset by the illness among my slaves. Some of them have actually died, including even younger men. In cases like this I find comfort in two thoughts. I am always ready to give my slaves their freedom, so I don’t think their deaths so untimely if they die free men. I also permit my slaves to make a “will,” which I consider legally binding."
Pliny, Letters VIII.16 (Need citation)
Other slave-holders were not as humane in their relations with their slaves. Cato gives this advice to Romans about slaves and agriculture:
"Let the farmer sell olive oil, if he has a good price, also his wine and his grain. Let him sell his surplus too: old oxen, an old plow, an old slave, a sick slave."
Cato, On Agriculture 2.3 (extracts)
(Need citation)
Slaves were keenly aware of their inferior positions and by way of protest sometimes tried to run away. Escaped slaves, when re-captured were branded the letters FUG (fugitīvus, runaway) on their foreheads.
(Need citation)
Sources
1. Answers Corporation, (2007). Answers.com. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Answers.com Web site:http://www.answers.com/topic/slavery-in-ancient-rome
2. Lyn , Mclean (Ed.). (1995). Ecce Romani, A Latin Reading Program. London: Longman Group Ltd.
3. Crystal, Ellie (2007). Slavery in Ancient Rome. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Ancient Rome Web site:http://www.crystalinks.com/romeslavery.html
4. Mirza, Smair and Tsang, Jason (2006). Slavery. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Rome Exposed Web site:http://www.classicsunveiled.com/romel/html/slavery.html
Describe the origins of Christianity and its central features
Focus Question: What were the central features of Christianity?
A. The Origins of Christianity
The Last Supper
From History-World.org, "The Origins of Christianity" edited by Robert A. Guisepi of History World International
'In the initial decades of the Roman Empire, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, a new religion, Christianity, emerged. Much of the impetus for this new religion rested in issues in the Jewish religion, including along-standing belief in the coming of a Messiah and rigidities that had developed in the Jewish priesthood. Whether or not Christianity was created by God, as Christians believe, the early stages of the religion focused on cleansing the Jewish religion of stiff rituals and haughty leaders. It had little at first to do with Roman culture. Christianity arose in a remote province and appealed particularly to the poorer classes. It is not easy, as a result, to fit Christianity neatly into the patterns of Roman history: It was deliberately separate, and only gradually had wider impact.
Christianity originated with Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish prophet and teacher who probably came to believe he was the Son of God and certainly was regarded as such by his disciples. Jesus preached in Israel during the time of Augustus, urging a purification of the Jewish religion that would free Israel and establish the kingdom of God on earth. He urged a moral code based on love, charity, and humility, and he asked the faithful to follow his lessons, abandoning worldly concern. Many disciples believed that a Final Judgment day was near at hand, on which God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to everlasting hell.'
Explore the life and death of Jesus and the rise of Christianity in Frontline's video, From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians.
Explore early Christian art from Rome at the British Museum's site.
For more information on Christianity, see Christianity: Background, Basic Beliefs, and Sacred Texts.
B. Monotheism:
Monotheism is the belief in only one god. The word comes from two Greek words: monos meaning one and theos meaning god. Monotheism is one of the most influential attempts to establish God’s uniqueness.
Monotheism is the view that God created the world such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. From the perspective of monotheism, God oversees and intervenes in human events, holy being, and a beneficent.
Akhenaton of Egypt is an example of the earliest known monotheistic man in the fourteenth century BC.
Monotheism is a word coined in comparatively modern times to designate belief in the one supreme God, the Creator and Lord of the world, the eternal Spirit, All-powerful, All-wise, and All-good, the Rewarder of good and the Punisher of evil, the Source of our happiness and perfection.
God is presented to us as the loving, merciful Father, not of one privileged people, but of all mankind. In this filial relation with God -- a relation of confidence, gratitude, love -- Christ centers our obligations both to God and to our fellow men. He lays hold of the individual soul and reveals to it its high destiny of Divine sonship. At the same time, He impresses on us the corresponding duty of treating others as God's children, and hence as our brethren, entitled not simply to justice, but to mercy and charity. To complete this idea of Christian fellowship, Jesus shows Himself to be the eternal Son of God, sent by His heavenly Father to save us from sin, to raise us to the life of grace and to the dignity of children of God through the atoning merits of His life and death. The love of God the Father thus includes the love of His incarnate Son.
C. The Belief in Jesus as the Messiah and God’s Son Who Redeemed Humans From Sin.
Mural painting from the catacomb of Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one of first bearded images of Christ. Earlier Christian art in Rome portrayed Jesus most often as the Good Shepherd, disguised as Orpheus, young, beardless and in a short tunic. During the 4th century Jesus was beginning to be depicted as a man of identifiably Jewish appearance, with a full beard and long hair, a style not usually worn by Romans. The symbols on either side are Alpha and Omega signifying "I am the beginning and the end".
Christians believe that Jesus’ dying on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice for humanity. They believe that he died to save the world from sin. They view Jesus as the son of God who became man.
The word “Christ” comes from the Greek word “Christos”. Christos means the Anointed one or the Messiah. The word Christ is sometimes used as a name for Jesus. At other times Christ is used to describe the Messiah or Savior.
D. The Concept of Salvation.
Salvation generally means liberation from straitened circumstances or from other evils, and of a translation into a state of freedom and security (1 Samuel 11:13; 14:45; 2 Samuel 23:10; 2 Kings 13:17). At times Salvation expressed God'shelp against Israel's enemies. At other times, it expressed the Divine blessing bestowed on the produce of the soil (Isaiah 45:8). As sin is the greatest evil and the root and source of all evil, Sacred Scripture uses salvation mainly in the sense of liberation of the human race or individual man from sin and its consequences.
Initial salvation: a person’s conversion and repention of their sins.
Progressive Salvation: the journey of a believer between life and death. It is the only path that leads to eternal life (Roman 6:20-23).
Final salvation: final salvation refers to the event of God saving his people at the final judgment, the great divide between sheep and goats, wherein sheep are identified by their work of faith and labor of love and steadfastness of hope in the Lord Jesus Christ, and accepted on the ground of their union with Christ, the righteous substitute.
D. Belief in the Old and New Testament.
Christ Carrying Cross
Old Testament: the belief that all versions and translations of the Hebrew Bible and is the first major part of the Bible used by Christians. It is usually divided by Judaism into the categories of law: Torah; prophecy: Neviim; and writings: Kethuvim (history, poetry, wisdom books); as denoted by the acronym Tanakh.
New Testament: sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, and sometimes also New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek – is the name given to the final portion of the Christian Bible, written after the Old Testament. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various authors after c. 45 AD and before c. 140 AD. Its books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture.
The Old Testament describes the sacrificial system God gave the Israelites to temporarily cover their sins. The New Testament clarifies that this system alluded to the sacrifice of Christ through whom alone salvation is found (Acts 4:12; Hebrews 10:4-10). The Old Testament saw paradise lost; the New Testament shows how paradise was regained for mankind through the second Adam (Christ) and how it will one day be restored. The Old Testament declares that man was separated from God through sin (Genesis chapter 3), and the New Testament declares that man can now be restored in his relationship to God (Romans chapters 3–6). The Old Testament predicted the Messiah's life. The Gospels primarily record Jesus' life, and the Epistles interpret His life and how we are to respond to all He has done.
E. Lives and Teachings of Jesus and Saint Paul.
St. Paul
Saint Paul: with an emphasis on Christianity as a universal religion, Paul argued that the Law was utterly worthless in gaining salvation relied on the Greek and Roman legal concept of the spirit and the letter of the law. His goal was the expansion of the central teachings of Jesus of Nazareth throughout the Roman world.
Jesus: narrowly conceived the religion as a religion of the Jews that strongly focuses on women and the social status of women. Jesus heralded the coming of a new age where all people would live as God's children, simply stated: "Treat others as you would wish to be treated."
List of all Sermons given by Jesus in the Bible.
http://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/sermons/default.asp
See The Life and Teachings of Jesus by Preston Thomas for more information on Jesus's life and teachings.
F. The Relationship Between Early Christians to Officials of the Roman Empire.
Christian texts are anti-Roman. They are consistently dismissive of human and worldly authority. Theses attitudes had to be changed for Christianity to flourish. Nicene creed: the basic statement of belief for orthodox Christianity. 312 AD, Constantine supposedly had a vision of the sign of Christ in a dream.
Conflicts grew for a variety of different reasons. The citizens of Rome should sponsor a sacrifice in the Roman temple once a year as a civic duty. Many Christians refused to accept the duty as it would force them to acknowledge the legitimacy of Pagan Gods. Christians ignored some Roman laws and Roman authorities labeled the entire Christian movement as a bunch of arsonists. Because of these conflicts Christians were constantly persecuted in the Roman Empire
Sources
http://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/sermons/default.asp http://history-world.org/origins_of_christianity.htm
New Sources:
The Origins of Christianity (2006). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from World History Project's site: http://history-world.org/origins_of_christianity.htm.
From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians (2011). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from WGBH Educational Foundation's site:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/watch/.
The Life and Teachings of Jesus. Retrieved 2 August 2011 from: http://www.lifeandteachingsofjesus.org/.
British Museum--Room 70: Roman Empire. Retrieved 2 August 2011 from the British Museum's site:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_greece_and_rome/room_70_roman_empire.aspx.
Christianity: Background, Basic Beliefs, and Sacred Texts (2002). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from United Religion Initiative's site:
http://www.uri.org/kids/world_chri_basi.htm.
A. The Origins of Christianity
The Last Supper
From History-World.org, "The Origins of Christianity" edited by Robert A. Guisepi of History World International
'In the initial decades of the Roman Empire, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, a new religion, Christianity, emerged. Much of the impetus for this new religion rested in issues in the Jewish religion, including along-standing belief in the coming of a Messiah and rigidities that had developed in the Jewish priesthood. Whether or not Christianity was created by God, as Christians believe, the early stages of the religion focused on cleansing the Jewish religion of stiff rituals and haughty leaders. It had little at first to do with Roman culture. Christianity arose in a remote province and appealed particularly to the poorer classes. It is not easy, as a result, to fit Christianity neatly into the patterns of Roman history: It was deliberately separate, and only gradually had wider impact.
Christianity originated with Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish prophet and teacher who probably came to believe he was the Son of God and certainly was regarded as such by his disciples. Jesus preached in Israel during the time of Augustus, urging a purification of the Jewish religion that would free Israel and establish the kingdom of God on earth. He urged a moral code based on love, charity, and humility, and he asked the faithful to follow his lessons, abandoning worldly concern. Many disciples believed that a Final Judgment day was near at hand, on which God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to everlasting hell.'
Explore the life and death of Jesus and the rise of Christianity in Frontline's video, From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians.
Explore early Christian art from Rome at the British Museum's site.
For more information on Christianity, see Christianity: Background, Basic Beliefs, and Sacred Texts.
B. Monotheism:
Monotheism is the belief in only one god. The word comes from two Greek words: monos meaning one and theos meaning god. Monotheism is one of the most influential attempts to establish God’s uniqueness.
Monotheism is the view that God created the world such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. From the perspective of monotheism, God oversees and intervenes in human events, holy being, and a beneficent.
Akhenaton of Egypt is an example of the earliest known monotheistic man in the fourteenth century BC.
Monotheism is a word coined in comparatively modern times to designate belief in the one supreme God, the Creator and Lord of the world, the eternal Spirit, All-powerful, All-wise, and All-good, the Rewarder of good and the Punisher of evil, the Source of our happiness and perfection.
God is presented to us as the loving, merciful Father, not of one privileged people, but of all mankind. In this filial relation with God -- a relation of confidence, gratitude, love -- Christ centers our obligations both to God and to our fellow men. He lays hold of the individual soul and reveals to it its high destiny of Divine sonship. At the same time, He impresses on us the corresponding duty of treating others as God's children, and hence as our brethren, entitled not simply to justice, but to mercy and charity. To complete this idea of Christian fellowship, Jesus shows Himself to be the eternal Son of God, sent by His heavenly Father to save us from sin, to raise us to the life of grace and to the dignity of children of God through the atoning merits of His life and death. The love of God the Father thus includes the love of His incarnate Son.
C. The Belief in Jesus as the Messiah and God’s Son Who Redeemed Humans From Sin.
Mural painting from the catacomb of Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one of first bearded images of Christ. Earlier Christian art in Rome portrayed Jesus most often as the Good Shepherd, disguised as Orpheus, young, beardless and in a short tunic. During the 4th century Jesus was beginning to be depicted as a man of identifiably Jewish appearance, with a full beard and long hair, a style not usually worn by Romans. The symbols on either side are Alpha and Omega signifying "I am the beginning and the end".
Christians believe that Jesus’ dying on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice for humanity. They believe that he died to save the world from sin. They view Jesus as the son of God who became man.
- Peter said Jesus is the Messiah and the Son of God. Matthew 16:16.
- Only God can open the mind of a person to believe that Jesus is the son of God. Matthew 16:17; John 6:44.
- Jesus builds his church with people who believe Jesus is the Messiah and the Son of God. Matthew 16:16-18.
The word “Christ” comes from the Greek word “Christos”. Christos means the Anointed one or the Messiah. The word Christ is sometimes used as a name for Jesus. At other times Christ is used to describe the Messiah or Savior.
D. The Concept of Salvation.
Salvation generally means liberation from straitened circumstances or from other evils, and of a translation into a state of freedom and security (1 Samuel 11:13; 14:45; 2 Samuel 23:10; 2 Kings 13:17). At times Salvation expressed God'shelp against Israel's enemies. At other times, it expressed the Divine blessing bestowed on the produce of the soil (Isaiah 45:8). As sin is the greatest evil and the root and source of all evil, Sacred Scripture uses salvation mainly in the sense of liberation of the human race or individual man from sin and its consequences.
Initial salvation: a person’s conversion and repention of their sins.
Progressive Salvation: the journey of a believer between life and death. It is the only path that leads to eternal life (Roman 6:20-23).
Final salvation: final salvation refers to the event of God saving his people at the final judgment, the great divide between sheep and goats, wherein sheep are identified by their work of faith and labor of love and steadfastness of hope in the Lord Jesus Christ, and accepted on the ground of their union with Christ, the righteous substitute.
D. Belief in the Old and New Testament.
Christ Carrying Cross
Old Testament: the belief that all versions and translations of the Hebrew Bible and is the first major part of the Bible used by Christians. It is usually divided by Judaism into the categories of law: Torah; prophecy: Neviim; and writings: Kethuvim (history, poetry, wisdom books); as denoted by the acronym Tanakh.
New Testament: sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, and sometimes also New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek – is the name given to the final portion of the Christian Bible, written after the Old Testament. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various authors after c. 45 AD and before c. 140 AD. Its books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture.
The Old Testament describes the sacrificial system God gave the Israelites to temporarily cover their sins. The New Testament clarifies that this system alluded to the sacrifice of Christ through whom alone salvation is found (Acts 4:12; Hebrews 10:4-10). The Old Testament saw paradise lost; the New Testament shows how paradise was regained for mankind through the second Adam (Christ) and how it will one day be restored. The Old Testament declares that man was separated from God through sin (Genesis chapter 3), and the New Testament declares that man can now be restored in his relationship to God (Romans chapters 3–6). The Old Testament predicted the Messiah's life. The Gospels primarily record Jesus' life, and the Epistles interpret His life and how we are to respond to all He has done.
E. Lives and Teachings of Jesus and Saint Paul.
St. Paul
Saint Paul: with an emphasis on Christianity as a universal religion, Paul argued that the Law was utterly worthless in gaining salvation relied on the Greek and Roman legal concept of the spirit and the letter of the law. His goal was the expansion of the central teachings of Jesus of Nazareth throughout the Roman world.
Jesus: narrowly conceived the religion as a religion of the Jews that strongly focuses on women and the social status of women. Jesus heralded the coming of a new age where all people would live as God's children, simply stated: "Treat others as you would wish to be treated."
List of all Sermons given by Jesus in the Bible.
http://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/sermons/default.asp
See The Life and Teachings of Jesus by Preston Thomas for more information on Jesus's life and teachings.
F. The Relationship Between Early Christians to Officials of the Roman Empire.
Christian texts are anti-Roman. They are consistently dismissive of human and worldly authority. Theses attitudes had to be changed for Christianity to flourish. Nicene creed: the basic statement of belief for orthodox Christianity. 312 AD, Constantine supposedly had a vision of the sign of Christ in a dream.
Conflicts grew for a variety of different reasons. The citizens of Rome should sponsor a sacrifice in the Roman temple once a year as a civic duty. Many Christians refused to accept the duty as it would force them to acknowledge the legitimacy of Pagan Gods. Christians ignored some Roman laws and Roman authorities labeled the entire Christian movement as a bunch of arsonists. Because of these conflicts Christians were constantly persecuted in the Roman Empire
Sources
- Bernard, David K. (1998). Christina Monotheism. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from The pentecostal home page Web site: http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch1.htm
- Answers Corporation, (2007). Answers.com. Retrieved March 21, 2007, from Answers.com Web site:http://www.answers.com/topic/monotheism
- Sunday school resource.com, (2002). Peter confessed Jesus is the Messiah. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Sunday school resource.com Web site: http://www.sundayschoolresources.com/btpetersconfession.htm
- Wikipedia Foundation, Inc., (2007). Jesus. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Wikipedia Web site:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus
- Theopedia, (2006, Oct). Salvation. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Theopedia Web site:http://www.theopedia.com/Salvation
- Maas, A.J. (2007). Salvation. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from New Advant Web site:http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13407a.htm
- Wikipedia Foundation, Inc., (2007). Old Testament. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Wikipedia Web site:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/old testament
- Wikipedia Foundation, Inc., (2007). New Testament. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Wikipedia Web site:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/new
- Hines, Richard (1996). Early Christian. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Christians Web site:http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHRIST/PAUL.HTM
- Chew, Robin (1995). Jesus of Nazareth. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Lucidcafe Web site:http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95dec/jesus.html
- Heaton, Chris (2005). Christianity. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from UNRV History Web site:http://www.unrv.com/culture/christianity.php
- Robinson, B.A. (2005, May, 28). History of Christianity. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Religious Tolerance Web site:http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_hise.htm
- http://www.gotquestions.org/difference-old-new-testaments.html
http://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/sermons/default.asp http://history-world.org/origins_of_christianity.htm
New Sources:
The Origins of Christianity (2006). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from World History Project's site: http://history-world.org/origins_of_christianity.htm.
From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians (2011). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from WGBH Educational Foundation's site:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/watch/.
The Life and Teachings of Jesus. Retrieved 2 August 2011 from: http://www.lifeandteachingsofjesus.org/.
British Museum--Room 70: Roman Empire. Retrieved 2 August 2011 from the British Museum's site:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_greece_and_rome/room_70_roman_empire.aspx.
Christianity: Background, Basic Beliefs, and Sacred Texts (2002). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from United Religion Initiative's site:
http://www.uri.org/kids/world_chri_basi.htm.
Explain how the inner forces (including the rise of autonomous military powers, political corruption, and economic and political instability) and the external forces (shrinking trade, attacks, and invasions) led to the disintegration of the Roman Empire
Focus Question: What forces led to the fall of the Roman Empire?Map of the Roman Empire, 117 CE
Roman Empire Timeline
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, from Fordham University, offers a number of valuable resources, including a number of texts from the later empire, as well as some more modern reckonings of what happened.
Lacus Curtius, from the University of Chicago, provides a number of maps, pictures and texts. Including the whole of J. B. Bury's 1889 book, "The History of the Later Empire."
An Interactive Map of the Roman Empire is available at www.roman-empire.net which houses a number of other resources.
Women in Ancient Rome provides some important insight into the lives of women under the Roman Empire.
Fall of Roman Empire Video
In AD 180, as Commodus started to rule Rome, the Roman Empire fell into turmoil. It was in the beginning of a collapse of political institutions, a weakening of the army, and economic disaster. Moreover, under Caligus, Commodus, and Nero, even though they oversaw the government of the Empire, the life of an average Roman citizen worsened.
Commodus
After the murder of Commodus in AD 192, the fighting over the seat to the throne erupted into civil war, changing every aspect of Roman life.
During the Severan dynasty, which ruled Rome from 193-235CE, civil war continued in many areas. Septimus, part of the Severan dynasty, kept his soldiers loyal by raising their annual pay and also by relaxing the strict military discipline. Legionaries that were on active duty were allowed to marry, farm their own land, and even live in the city as opposed to living in a camp. Septimus trusted his army so much as to give his soldiers numerous administrative tasks such as tax collection. Such actions lessened military readiness.
Septimus made it very open that his regime relied mainly on the military alone. In fact, his final words to his sons, Caracalla and Geta, were, "Live in harmony; enrich the troops; ignore everyone else." By making his troops feel as relaxed as he could, he intended to secure the future of his dynasty. Contradictory to his ambition, this ended up weakening the imperial defenses and inflaming the greed and ambition of the soldiers. His plan did not meet his hopes, having his five successors, and both of his sons, murdered.
The Severan dynasty stayed in power by indulging the troops over several decades. However, it was soon apparent that the costs of doing so were enormous. This age was full of turmoil. Despite this, the Roman Empire remained large and had an impressive system of law, food production, frontier defense, and commerce.
Factors that led to the weakening of the Empire:
Septimius Severus, 193–211 AD. Aureus (7.23 gm). Struck 193 AD to celebrate the legion that proclamed him emperor
Additionally, Emperors gradually debased Roman coinage. Silver coins, the basic currency of the Empire, were made of 95% pure silver when they were first introduced under Augustus. This standard slipped to 85% in 117, 75% in 180, and finally sank to 50% before the death of Carcalla in 217. The reduced value of the basic unit of Roman currency caused a massive amount of inflation, leading to panic and poverty in the government and the general population. Though some Emperors made an effort to reverse this trend, inflation caused by the fiscal irresponsibility of previous regimes made it impossible to reverse the effects of inflation. In 301, Emperor Diocletian fixed the price at 50,000 denarii (basic silver coins) as equal to one pound of gold. At the death of Constantine in 337, scarcely 36 years later, this price had risen to 20,000,000 denarii per pound of gold - and Constantine was reasonable, compared to the lack of fiscal responsibility demonstrated by many other Emperors.
The east also had a stronger economic base provided by the rich lands of Egypt. It also received a financial boost from trade with Arabia, China, and India. Rome taxed Egypt and North Africa for grain.
As Germanic tribes seized more taxable lands, revenues fell and the west could barely support its unproductive soldiers, civil servants, and clergy. It did not have enough money to support the bribes that the Germanic invaders wanted in order to leave.
Why did Rome Fall?There are adherents to single factors, but more people think a combination of such factors as Christianity, decadence, lead, monetary trouble, and military problems caused the Fall of Rome. Imperial incompetence and chance could be added to the list. Even the rise of Islam is proposed as the reason for Rome's fall, by some who think the Fall of Rome happened at Constantinople in A.D. 1453.
Overview of the factors that contributed to the collapse of the Roman Empire:
Sources
Roman Empire Timeline
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, from Fordham University, offers a number of valuable resources, including a number of texts from the later empire, as well as some more modern reckonings of what happened.
Lacus Curtius, from the University of Chicago, provides a number of maps, pictures and texts. Including the whole of J. B. Bury's 1889 book, "The History of the Later Empire."
An Interactive Map of the Roman Empire is available at www.roman-empire.net which houses a number of other resources.
Women in Ancient Rome provides some important insight into the lives of women under the Roman Empire.
Fall of Roman Empire Video
In AD 180, as Commodus started to rule Rome, the Roman Empire fell into turmoil. It was in the beginning of a collapse of political institutions, a weakening of the army, and economic disaster. Moreover, under Caligus, Commodus, and Nero, even though they oversaw the government of the Empire, the life of an average Roman citizen worsened.
Commodus
After the murder of Commodus in AD 192, the fighting over the seat to the throne erupted into civil war, changing every aspect of Roman life.
During the Severan dynasty, which ruled Rome from 193-235CE, civil war continued in many areas. Septimus, part of the Severan dynasty, kept his soldiers loyal by raising their annual pay and also by relaxing the strict military discipline. Legionaries that were on active duty were allowed to marry, farm their own land, and even live in the city as opposed to living in a camp. Septimus trusted his army so much as to give his soldiers numerous administrative tasks such as tax collection. Such actions lessened military readiness.
Septimus made it very open that his regime relied mainly on the military alone. In fact, his final words to his sons, Caracalla and Geta, were, "Live in harmony; enrich the troops; ignore everyone else." By making his troops feel as relaxed as he could, he intended to secure the future of his dynasty. Contradictory to his ambition, this ended up weakening the imperial defenses and inflaming the greed and ambition of the soldiers. His plan did not meet his hopes, having his five successors, and both of his sons, murdered.
The Severan dynasty stayed in power by indulging the troops over several decades. However, it was soon apparent that the costs of doing so were enormous. This age was full of turmoil. Despite this, the Roman Empire remained large and had an impressive system of law, food production, frontier defense, and commerce.
Factors that led to the weakening of the Empire:
- Civil war and the collapse of central authority affected Roman life and culture.
- Increasingly harsh demands for funds to support the armies and the bureaucracy made Roman civilian’s life hard. Many farmers fled their land to work for large landholders or turned to robbery because they could not pay such high taxes.
- Geographically, the Western Empire had to defend a long border along the Rhine and Danube rivers, western Empire cities were weaker and newer. The eastern Empire had more population and wealthy cities that provided men and supplies for a larger army.
- Rome was subject to numerous invasions by the Germanic tribes. These weakened central authority, disrupted trade, hurt agriculture, and destroyed communities.
- The military needed more items to support itself. This caused taxes to rise and the richer class of people avoided them. Emperors doubled inheritance taxes paid by Roman citizens, then extended citizenship to nearly everybody in the Roman Empire so that there would be a larger tax-paying population. The bulk of tax revenue began to come from poor farmers who had barely enough to support themselves. This caused an increase in poverty and contributed to the economic decline of the Roman Empire.
Septimius Severus, 193–211 AD. Aureus (7.23 gm). Struck 193 AD to celebrate the legion that proclamed him emperor
Additionally, Emperors gradually debased Roman coinage. Silver coins, the basic currency of the Empire, were made of 95% pure silver when they were first introduced under Augustus. This standard slipped to 85% in 117, 75% in 180, and finally sank to 50% before the death of Carcalla in 217. The reduced value of the basic unit of Roman currency caused a massive amount of inflation, leading to panic and poverty in the government and the general population. Though some Emperors made an effort to reverse this trend, inflation caused by the fiscal irresponsibility of previous regimes made it impossible to reverse the effects of inflation. In 301, Emperor Diocletian fixed the price at 50,000 denarii (basic silver coins) as equal to one pound of gold. At the death of Constantine in 337, scarcely 36 years later, this price had risen to 20,000,000 denarii per pound of gold - and Constantine was reasonable, compared to the lack of fiscal responsibility demonstrated by many other Emperors.
The east also had a stronger economic base provided by the rich lands of Egypt. It also received a financial boost from trade with Arabia, China, and India. Rome taxed Egypt and North Africa for grain.
As Germanic tribes seized more taxable lands, revenues fell and the west could barely support its unproductive soldiers, civil servants, and clergy. It did not have enough money to support the bribes that the Germanic invaders wanted in order to leave.
Why did Rome Fall?There are adherents to single factors, but more people think a combination of such factors as Christianity, decadence, lead, monetary trouble, and military problems caused the Fall of Rome. Imperial incompetence and chance could be added to the list. Even the rise of Islam is proposed as the reason for Rome's fall, by some who think the Fall of Rome happened at Constantinople in A.D. 1453.
Overview of the factors that contributed to the collapse of the Roman Empire:
- income from taxes shrank causing inflation
- fall of the trade: economic power of cities declined.
- debased coinage increased inflation
- Slavery became ineffective due to the inflation
- Barbarians invaded Rome
Sources
- Duiker, William J. and Spielvogel, Jackson J., (2005). The essential world history. Belmonet, CA: Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
- Peden, Joseph. "Inflation and the Fall of the Roman Empire". October 27, 1984. http://ar.to/2009/08/inflation-and-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire
- http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/romefallarticles/a/fallofrome.htm
Describe the major contributions of Roman civilization on law, literature, poetry, architecture, engineering, and technology.
Focus Question: What was Rome's contributions to law, literature, poetry, architecture, engineering, and technology?
For images and virtual reality recreations of famous Roman sites, visit Rome Reborn: A Digital Model of Ancient Rome.
For more, explore Ancient Rome in Google Earth.
1) Law: Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome. The period of Roman law covers more than one thousand years from the law of the Twelve Tables to the Corpus Iuris Civilis.Rome had a Senate, though it was not a Senate as we think of it, but was made of the elite men of Roman society. These men made all the decisions in the empire.
The Twelve Tables, Leipzig, Germany
To read The Twelve Tables, follow this link.
To read a selection from the Corpus Iuris Civilis, follow this link.
2) Literature & Poetry: The Romans produced many works of poetry, comedy, tragedy, satire, history, and rhetoric, tracing to the traditions of other cultures including Greece.
Long after the Western Roman Empire had fallen, the Latin language continued to play a central role in western European civilization. Catullus, Horace, and Vergil are three of the most famous poets, and Livy is one of the most famous historians.
Virgil reading the 'Aeneid' to Augustus and Octavia
Follow these links for more on Vergil and the text of The Aeneid.
3) Art: The Romans developed or improved their art by copying the art from the Greeks for the statues. Statues were made of clay, marble, or bronze. Metal could be added to the statues, so that they had added strength.
Statues were well made and often nude.They were sometimes of deities, and sometimes of leaders, though there are exceptions. The style was generally Greek, and Roman leaders often tried to represent themselves as Greek heroes. Many statues are direct copies of Greek ones.
Cameo Portrait of the emperor Augustus
Paintings and mosaics were important too as they were used to advertise or to show everyday life scenes. Frescoes, or paintings on wet plaster, were extremely popular, particularly in wealthier houses. The best preserved in Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were preserved after Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD.The pigments were usually made from natural materials such as stones, plants, and insects. Frescoes and mosaics showed everything from religious scenes to everyday life to theatrical scenes.
Mosaics are said to have come from the city of Babylon and that since the Romans thought they were beautiful they incorporated them into their walls and floors. There are different styles of mosaics and there is a name for each style. One is called opus sectile, which is a mosaic made with stones put in a certain way to make the desired look. There is also opus tessellatum which are like dice. These are made of square tiles and are usually floors. There is a more complex styles which is called Opus vermiculatum where the square stones are of varying sizes. Mosaics are usually made up of tiny stones which are painted. These stones can make pictures or just geometric patterns. The tiles are called tesserae.
For examples of art work, visit the Detroit Institute of Arts collection of Greco-Roman and Ancient European art.
Colosseum at night.Author: Roberto Larcher (Larky, photo taken himself, upload to italian wikipedia 25.05.2005
4) Architecture: The Romans are well known for their architecture. Romans began to use concrete, which became the main building material.They built buildings supported by arches supported by columns instead of dense rows of columns. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In small-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment. The Romans were the first to use arches as a main way of supporting their buildings, allowing them to build massive structures like aqueducts and the Colosseum.
Click here to view still images and an interactive model of Regio 6 Insula 15 (includes the House of the Vetti) from The Digital Pompeii Project at the University of Arkansas.
Click here to view Pompeii on Google Street View .
Many monuments, such as the Colosseum and the Pantheon still remain today.
Click here to see the Colosseum using Google Maps Street View and to see the Colosseum in panorama view.
5) Engineering: The Romans developed the Roman abacus, the first portable counting device, based on earlier Greek counting boards.
It reduced the time needed to perform Roman arithmetic operations. It was used heavily by merchants, tax collectors and engineers. It was also used by rich schoolchildren, and another version was to help calculate the movement of the planets. Roman engineering contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas.
Click here for background on Roman Numerals with a converter for changing Roman numbers into our present day number system.
ivoli, resti dell'acquedotto Marcio in località Arci
6) Technology: The Romans used aqueducts, bridges and amphitheaters. They were also responsible for many innovations to roads, sanitation, and construction.
Most of Roman columns and arches, seen in famous Roman architecture, were adopted from the Etruscan civilization. Glassblowing started in Syria and spread throughout the empire, in the course of one generation. There were many different labor saving machines including cranes, water mills, various types of presses, and many types of grain mills. Cranes were widely used in the Roman Empire. They were used for construction work and to load and unload ships.
The Romans built roads for military purposes. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years. The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites. The Roman public baths serves as sources for hygiene and cultural functions.
[1] Latin Literature. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_literature
[2] Roman Technology. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology.
[3] Ancient Rome. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman
[4] Roman Architecture. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome http://www.main-vision.com/richard/art.shtml
[5] Photo of "Cameo Portrait of the emperor Augustus". Retrieved February 1, 2011, fromhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/42.11.30.
For images and virtual reality recreations of famous Roman sites, visit Rome Reborn: A Digital Model of Ancient Rome.
For more, explore Ancient Rome in Google Earth.
1) Law: Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome. The period of Roman law covers more than one thousand years from the law of the Twelve Tables to the Corpus Iuris Civilis.Rome had a Senate, though it was not a Senate as we think of it, but was made of the elite men of Roman society. These men made all the decisions in the empire.
The Twelve Tables, Leipzig, Germany
To read The Twelve Tables, follow this link.
To read a selection from the Corpus Iuris Civilis, follow this link.
2) Literature & Poetry: The Romans produced many works of poetry, comedy, tragedy, satire, history, and rhetoric, tracing to the traditions of other cultures including Greece.
Long after the Western Roman Empire had fallen, the Latin language continued to play a central role in western European civilization. Catullus, Horace, and Vergil are three of the most famous poets, and Livy is one of the most famous historians.
Virgil reading the 'Aeneid' to Augustus and Octavia
Follow these links for more on Vergil and the text of The Aeneid.
3) Art: The Romans developed or improved their art by copying the art from the Greeks for the statues. Statues were made of clay, marble, or bronze. Metal could be added to the statues, so that they had added strength.
Statues were well made and often nude.They were sometimes of deities, and sometimes of leaders, though there are exceptions. The style was generally Greek, and Roman leaders often tried to represent themselves as Greek heroes. Many statues are direct copies of Greek ones.
Cameo Portrait of the emperor Augustus
Paintings and mosaics were important too as they were used to advertise or to show everyday life scenes. Frescoes, or paintings on wet plaster, were extremely popular, particularly in wealthier houses. The best preserved in Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were preserved after Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD.The pigments were usually made from natural materials such as stones, plants, and insects. Frescoes and mosaics showed everything from religious scenes to everyday life to theatrical scenes.
Mosaics are said to have come from the city of Babylon and that since the Romans thought they were beautiful they incorporated them into their walls and floors. There are different styles of mosaics and there is a name for each style. One is called opus sectile, which is a mosaic made with stones put in a certain way to make the desired look. There is also opus tessellatum which are like dice. These are made of square tiles and are usually floors. There is a more complex styles which is called Opus vermiculatum where the square stones are of varying sizes. Mosaics are usually made up of tiny stones which are painted. These stones can make pictures or just geometric patterns. The tiles are called tesserae.
For examples of art work, visit the Detroit Institute of Arts collection of Greco-Roman and Ancient European art.
Colosseum at night.Author: Roberto Larcher (Larky, photo taken himself, upload to italian wikipedia 25.05.2005
4) Architecture: The Romans are well known for their architecture. Romans began to use concrete, which became the main building material.They built buildings supported by arches supported by columns instead of dense rows of columns. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In small-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment. The Romans were the first to use arches as a main way of supporting their buildings, allowing them to build massive structures like aqueducts and the Colosseum.
Click here to view still images and an interactive model of Regio 6 Insula 15 (includes the House of the Vetti) from The Digital Pompeii Project at the University of Arkansas.
Click here to view Pompeii on Google Street View .
Many monuments, such as the Colosseum and the Pantheon still remain today.
Click here to see the Colosseum using Google Maps Street View and to see the Colosseum in panorama view.
5) Engineering: The Romans developed the Roman abacus, the first portable counting device, based on earlier Greek counting boards.
It reduced the time needed to perform Roman arithmetic operations. It was used heavily by merchants, tax collectors and engineers. It was also used by rich schoolchildren, and another version was to help calculate the movement of the planets. Roman engineering contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas.
Click here for background on Roman Numerals with a converter for changing Roman numbers into our present day number system.
ivoli, resti dell'acquedotto Marcio in località Arci
6) Technology: The Romans used aqueducts, bridges and amphitheaters. They were also responsible for many innovations to roads, sanitation, and construction.
Most of Roman columns and arches, seen in famous Roman architecture, were adopted from the Etruscan civilization. Glassblowing started in Syria and spread throughout the empire, in the course of one generation. There were many different labor saving machines including cranes, water mills, various types of presses, and many types of grain mills. Cranes were widely used in the Roman Empire. They were used for construction work and to load and unload ships.
The Romans built roads for military purposes. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years. The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites. The Roman public baths serves as sources for hygiene and cultural functions.
- For an interactive activity and further explanation on Roman technology visit Romans Techonology.
- A History of the World, a collection of images of Roman objects.
- To build your own aqueduct visit Secrets of Lost Empires.
[1] Latin Literature. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_literature
[2] Roman Technology. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology.
[3] Ancient Rome. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman
[4] Roman Architecture. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved February 11, 2007, fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome http://www.main-vision.com/richard/art.shtml
[5] Photo of "Cameo Portrait of the emperor Augustus". Retrieved February 1, 2011, fromhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/42.11.30.
Explain the spread and influence of the Roman alphabet and the Latin language, the use of Latin as the language of education for more than 1,000 years, and the role of Latin and Greek in scientific and academic vocabulary.
https://resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispaces.com/AncientCivilizations